Human trafficking is the trade of humans for the purpose of forced labour, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or others.[1][2] This may encompass providing a spouse in the context of forced marriage,[3][4][5] or the extraction of organs or tissues,[6][7] including for surrogacy and ova removal.[8] Human trafficking can occur within a country or trans-nationally. Human trafficking is a crime against the person because of the violation of the victim's rights of movement through coercion and because of their commercial exploitation.[9] Human trafficking is the trade in people, especially women and children, and does not necessarily involve the movement of the person from one place to another.[citation needed]
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What is Slavery and Human Trafficking? Sex trafficking occurs when a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion if the victim is 18 years of age or older. Any minor who performs a commercial sex act is defined — under federal and Tennessee law — as a victim of sex trafficking, regardless of the use of force, fraud, or coercion. Under the human trafficking program, the Bureau investigates matters where a person was induced to engage in commercial sex acts through force, fraud, or coercion, or to perform any labor or service through force, coercion, or threat of law or legal process. Typically, human trafficking cases fall under the following investigative areas.
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), forced labour alone (one component of human trafficking) generates an estimated $150 billion in profits per annum as of 2014.[10] In 2012, the ILO estimated that 21 million victims are trapped in modern-day slavery. Of these, 14.2 million (68%) were exploited for labour, 4.5 million (22%) were sexually exploited, and 2.2 million (10%) were exploited in state-imposed forced labour.[11] The International Labour Organization has reported that child workers, minorities, and irregular migrants are at considerable risk of more extreme forms of exploitation. Statistics shows that over half of the world’s 215 million young workers are observed to be in hazardous sectors, including forced sex work and forced street begging.[12] Ethnic minorities and highly marginalized groups of people are highly estimated to work in some of the most exploitative and damaging sectors, such as leather tanning, mining, and stone quarry work.[13]
Human trafficking is thought to be one of the fastest-growing activities of trans-national criminal organizations.[14]
Human trafficking is condemned as a violation of human rights by international conventions. In addition, human trafficking is subject to a directive in the European Union.[15] According to a report by the U.S. State Department, Belarus, Iran, Russia, and Turkmenistan remain among the worst countries when it comes to providing protection against human trafficking and forced labour.[16][clarification needed]
- 4General
- 5Types
- 7Structural factors
- 8Consequences
- 8.2Psychological
- 9Criticism
- 9.3Problems with anti-trafficking measures
- 10Modern feminist perspectives
Definition[edit]
Although human trafficking can occur at local or domestic levels, it has international implications, as recognized by the United Nations in the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children (also referred to as the Trafficking Protocol or the Palermo Protocol), an international agreement under the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (CTOC) which entered into force on 25 December 2003. The protocol is one of three which supplement the CTOC.[17] The Trafficking Protocol is the first global, legally binding instrument on trafficking in over half a century, and the only one with an agreed-upon definition of trafficking in persons. One of its purposes is to facilitate international cooperation in investigating and prosecuting such trafficking. Another is to protect and assist human trafficking's victims with full respect for their rights as established in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Trafficking Protocol, which had 117 signatories and as of November, 2018 173 parties,[18] defines human trafficking as:
(a) [...] the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal, manipulation or implantation of organs;
(b) The consent of a victim of trafficking in persons to the intended exploitation set forth in sub-paragraph (a) of this article shall be irrelevant where any of the means set forth in subparagraph (a) have been used;
(c) The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a child for the purpose of exploitation shall be considered 'trafficking in persons' even if this does not involve any of the means set forth in sub-paragraph (a) of this article;
(d) 'Child' shall mean any person under eighteen years of age.[19]
Revenue[edit]
In 2014, the International Labour Organization estimated $150 billion in annual profit is generated from forced labour alone.[10]
The average cost of a human trafficking victim today is USD $90 whereas the average slave in 1800 America cost the equivalent of USD $40,000.[20]
Usage of the term[edit]
Human trafficking differs from people smuggling, which involves a person voluntarily requesting or hiring another individual to covertly transport them across an international border, usually because the smuggled person would be denied entry into a country by legal channels. Though illegal, there may be no deception or coercion involved. After entry into the country and arrival at their ultimate destination, the smuggled person is usually free to find their own way. According to the International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD), people smuggling is a violation of national immigration laws of the destination country, and does not require violations of the rights of the smuggled person. Human trafficking, on the other hand, is a crime against a person because of the violation of the victim's rights through coercion and exploitation.[21]
While smuggling requires travel, trafficking does not. Trafficked people are held against their will through acts of coercion, and forced to work for or provide services to the trafficker or others. The work or services may include anything from bonded or forced labour to commercial sexual exploitation.[1][2] The arrangement may be structured as a work contract, but with no or low payment, or on terms which are highly exploitative. Sometimes the arrangement is structured as debt bondage, with the victim not being permitted or able to pay off the debt.
Bonded labour, or debt bondage, is probably the least known form of labour trafficking today, and yet is the most widely used method of enslaving people. Victims become 'bonded' when their labour, the labour which they themselves hired and the tangible goods they have bought are demanded as a means of repayment for a loan or service whose terms and conditions have not been defined, or where the value of the victims' services is not applied toward the liquidation of the debt. Generally, the value of their work is greater than the original sum of money 'borrowed'.[22]
Forced labour is a situation in which victims are forced to work against their own will under the threat of violence or some other form of punishment; their freedom is restricted and a degree of ownership is exerted. Men are at risk of being trafficked for unskilled work, which globally generates 31 billion USD according to the International Labour Organization.[23] Forms of forced labour can include domestic servitude, agricultural labour, sweatshop factory laboir, janitorial, food service and other service industry labour, and begging.[22] Some of the products that can be produced by forced labour are: clothing, cocoa, bricks, coffee, cotton, and gold.[24]
The International Organization for Migration (IOM), the single largest global provider of services to victims of trafficking, reports receiving an increasing number of cases in which victims were subjected to forced labour. A 2012 study observes that '… 2010 was particularly notable as the first year in which IOM assisted more victims of labour trafficking than those who had been trafficked for purposes of sexual exploitation.'[25] The IOMs' main focus is 'to provide secure, reliable, flexible and cost-effective services for persons who require international migration assistance. To enhance the humane and orderly management of migration and the effective respect for the human rights of migrations in accordance with international law. To offer advice, research, technical cooperation and operational assistance to States, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations and other stakeholders, in order to build national capacities and facilitate international, regional and bilateral cooperation on migration matters...' [26]
Child labour is a form of work that may be hazardous to the physical, mental, spiritual, moral, or social development of children and can interfere with their education. According to the International Labour Organization, the global number of children involved in child labour has fallen during the past decade – it has declined by one third, from 246 million in 2000 to 168 million children in 2012.[27] Sub-Saharan Africa is the region with the highest incidence of child labour, while the largest numbers of child-workers are found in Asia and the Pacific.[27]
General[edit]
A schematic showing global human trafficking from countries of origin and destinationCountries of origin
- Yellow: Moderate number of persons
- Orange: High number of persons
- Red: Very high number of persons
Countries of destination
- Light blue: High number of persons
- Blue: Very high number of persons
- Gray: No data
- Green: Trafficking is illegal and rare
- Yellow: Trafficking is illegal but problems still exist
- Purple: Trafficking is illegal but is still practiced
- Blue: Trafficking is limitedly illegal and is practiced
- Red: Trafficking is not illegal and is commonly practiced[28]
The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has further assisted many non-governmental organizations in their fight against human trafficking. The 2006 armed conflict in Lebanon, which saw 300,000 domestic workers from Sri Lanka, Ethiopia and the Philippines jobless and targets of traffickers, led to an emergency information campaign with NGO Caritas Migrant to raise human-trafficking awareness. Additionally, an April 2006 report, Trafficking in Persons: Global Patterns, helped to identify 127 countries of origin, 98 transit countries and 137 destination countries for human trafficking. To date, it is the second most frequently downloaded UNODC report. Continuing into 2007, UNODC supported initiatives like the Community Vigilance project along the border between India and Nepal, as well as provided subsidy for NGO trafficking prevention campaigns in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia.[29]
The United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UN.GIFT) was conceived to promote the global fight on human trafficking, on the basis of international agreements reached at the UN. UN.GIFT was launched in March 2007 by UNODC with a grant made on behalf of the United Arab Emirates. It is managed in cooperation with the International Labour Organization (ILO); the International Organization for Migration (IOM); the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF); the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR); and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
UNODC efforts to motivate action launched the Blue Heart Campaign Against Human Trafficking on 6 March 2009,[30] which Mexico launched its own national version of in April 2010.[31][32] The campaign encourages people to show solidarity with human trafficking victims by wearing the blue heart, similar to how wearing the red ribbon promotes transnational HIV/AIDS awareness.[33] On 4 November 2010, U.N. Secretary-GeneralBan Ki-moon launched the United Nations Voluntary Trust Fund for Victims of Trafficking in Persons to provide humanitarian, legal and financial aid to victims of human trafficking with the aim of increasing the number of those rescued and supported, and broadening the extent of assistance they receive.[34]
In 2013, the United Nations designated July 30 as the World Day against Trafficking in Persons.[35]
In January 2019, UNODC published the new edition of the Global Report on Trafficking in Persons.[36] The Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2018 has revealed that 30 per cent of all victims of human trafficking officially detected globally between 2016 and 2018 are children, up 3 per cent from the period 2007-2010.
The Global Report recorded victims of 137 different nationalities detected in 142 countries between 2012 and 2016, during which period, 500 different flows were identified. Around half of all trafficking took place within the same region with 42 per cent occurring within national borders. One exception is the Middle East, where most detected victims are East and South Asians. Trafficking victims from East Asia have been detected in more than 64 countries, making them the most geographically dispersed group around the world. There are significant regional differences in the detected forms of exploitation. Countries in Africa and in Asia generally intercept more cases of trafficking for forced labour, while sexual exploitation is somewhat more frequently found in Europe and in the Americas. Additionally, trafficking for organ removal was detected in 16 countries around the world.The Report raises concerns about low conviction rates – 16 per cent of reporting countries did not record a single conviction for trafficking in persons between 2007 and 2010. As of February 2018, 173 countries have ratified the United Nations Trafficking in Persons Protocol, of which UNODC is the guardian.[18] Significant progress has been made in terms of legislation: as of 2012, 83 per cent of countries had a law criminalizing trafficking in persons in accordance with the Protocol.[37]
Current international treaties (general)[edit]
- Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, entered into force in 1957
United States[edit]
In 2002, Derek Ellerman and Katherine Chon founded a non-government organization called Polaris Project to combat human trafficking. In 2007, Polaris instituted the National Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC) where[38] callers can report tips and receive information on human trafficking.[39] Polaris' website and hotline informs the public about where cases of suspected human trafficking have occurred within the United States. The website records calls on a map.[40]
In 2007, the U.S. Senate designated 11 January as a National Day of Human Trafficking Awareness in an effort to raise consciousness about this global, national and local issue.[41] In 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013, President Barack Obama proclaimed January as National Slavery and Human Trafficking Prevention Month.[42] Along with these initiatives libraries across the United States are beginning to contribute to human trafficking awareness. Slowly, libraries are turning into educational centers for those who are not aware of this issue. They are collaborating with other organizations to train staff members to spot human trafficking victims and find ways to help them.[43]
In 2014, DARPA funded the Memex program with the explicit goal of combating human trafficking via domain-specific search.[44] The advanced search capacity, including its ability to reach into the dark web has already allowed for prosecution of human trafficking cases, although they can be difficult to prosecute due to the fraudulent tactics of the human traffickers.[45]
Due to its size and the access to its large airport, Atlanta, Georgia is known as the core of trafficking in the United States. A 2014 study by Urban Institute showed that some traffickers, or 'pimps', in Atlanta grossed over $32,000 in one week.[46]
In 2015, the National Human Trafficking Resource Center hotline received reports of more than 5,000 potential human trafficking cases in the U.S. Children comprise up to one-third of all victims, while women make up more than half. [47]The Hotline can communicate with different people no matter their language. It serves in more than 200 language. [48]Human trafficking is a big business and it is a major problem in South Florida and one of the hotspots of this crime is on Miami Beach. Police in the city say they arrested 3 dozen suspected human traffickers in 2017. That’s believed to be the most in the South Florida area and investigators say in addition to focusing on arresting traffickers they’re focusing on providing help to victims. [49]
Council of Europe[edit]
On May 3rd, 2005, the Committee of Ministers adopted the Council of EuropeConvention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (CETS No. 197).[50] The Convention was opened for signature in Warsaw on 16 May 2005 on the occasion of the 3rd Summit of Heads of State and Government of the Council of Europe. On 24 October 2007, the Convention received its tenth ratification thereby triggering the process whereby it entered into force on 1 February 2008. As of June 2017, the Convention has been ratified by 47 states (including Belarus, a non-Council of Europe state), with Russia being the only state to not have ratified (nor signed).[51]
While other international instruments already exist in this field, the Council of Europe Convention, the first European treaty in this field, is a comprehensive treaty focusing mainly on the protection of victims of trafficking and the safeguard of their rights. It also aims to prevent trafficking and to prosecute traffickers. In addition, the Convention provides for the setting up of an effective and independent monitoring mechanism capable of controlling the implementation of the obligations contained in the Convention.
The Convention is not restricted to Council of Europe member states; non-member states and the European Union also have the possibility of becoming Party to the Convention. In 2013 Belarus became the first non-Council of Europe member state to accede to the Convention.[52][53]
The Convention established a Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA) which monitors the implementation of the Convention through country reports. As of 1 March 2013, GRETA has published 17 country reports.[54]
Complementary protection against sex trafficking of children is ensured through the Council of EuropeConvention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (signed in Lanzarote, 25 October 2007). The Convention entered into force on 1 July 2010.[55] As of September 2018, the Convention has been ratified by 44 states, with another 3 states having signed but not yet ratified.[56]
In addition, the European Court of Human Rights of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg has passed judgments concerning trafficking in human beings which violated obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights: Siliadin v. France,[57] judgment of 26 July 2005, and Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia,[58] judgment of 7 January 2010.
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe[edit]
In 2003, the OSCE established an anti-trafficking mechanism aimed at raising public awareness of the problem and building the political will within participating states to tackle it effectively.
The OSCE actions against human trafficking are coordinated by the Office of the Special Representative for Combating the Traffic of Human Beings.[59] In January 2010, Maria Grazia Giammarinaro became the OSCE Special Representative and Co-ordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings. Dr. Giammarinaro (Italy) has been a judge at the Criminal Court of Rome since 1991. She served from 2006 until 2009 in the European Commission's Directorate-General for Justice, Freedom and Security in Brussels, where she was responsible for work to combat human trafficking and sexual exploitation of children, as well as for penal aspects of illegal immigration within the unit dealing with the fight against organized crime. During this time, she co-ordinated the Group of Experts on Trafficking in Human Beings of the European Commission. From 2001 to 2006 she was a judge for preliminary investigation in the Criminal Court of Rome. Prior to that, from 1996 she was Head of the Legislative Office and Adviser to the Minister for Equal Opportunities. From 2006 to December 2009 the office was headed by Eva Biaudet, a former Member of Parliament and Minister of Health and Social Services in her native Finland.[citation needed]
The activities of the Office of the Special Representative range from training law enforcement agencies to tackle human trafficking to promoting policies aimed at rooting out corruption and organised crime. The Special Representative also visits countries and can, on their request, support the formation and implementation of their anti-trafficking policies. In other cases the Special Representative provides advice regarding implementation of the decisions on human trafficking, and assists governments, ministers and officials to achieve their stated goals of tackling human trafficking.[citation needed]
India Anti Human Trafficking Portal[edit]
In India, the trafficking in persons for commercial sexual exploitation, forced labour, forced marriages and domestic servitude is considered an organized crime. The Government of India applies the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013, active from 3 February 2013, as well as Section 370 and 370A IPC, which defines human trafficking and 'provides stringent punishment for human trafficking; trafficking of children for exploitation in any form including physical exploitation; or any form of sexual exploitation, slavery, servitude or the forced removal of organs.' Additionally, a Regional Task Force implements the SAARC Convention on the prevention of Trafficking in Women and Children.[60]
Shri R.P.N. Singh, India's Minister of State for Home Affairs, launched a government web portal, the Anti Human Trafficking Portal, on 20 February 2014. The official statement explained that the objective of the on-line resource is for the 'sharing of information across all stakeholders, States/UTs[Union Territories] and civil society organizations for effective implementation of Anti Human Trafficking measures.'[60] The key aims of the portal are:
- Aid in the tracking of cases with inter-state ramifications.
- Provide comprehensive information on legislation, statistics, court judgements, United Nations Conventions, details of trafficked people and traffickers and rescue success stories.
- Provide connection to 'Trackchild', the National Portal on Missing Children that is operational in many states.[60]
Also on 20 February, the Indian government announced the implementation of a Comprehensive Scheme that involves the establishment of Integrated Anti Human Trafficking Units (AHTUs) in 335 vulnerable police districts throughout India, as well as capacity building that includes training for police, prosecutors and judiciary. As of the announcement, 225 Integrated AHTUs had been made operational, while 100 more AHTUs were proposed for the forthcoming financial year.[60]
The Anti-trafficking Policy Index[edit]
The '3P Anti-trafficking Policy Index' measured the effectiveness of government policies to fight human trafficking based on an evaluation of policy requirements prescribed by the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children (2000).[61]
The policy level was evaluated using a five-point scale, where a score of five indicates the best policy practice, while score 1 is the worst. This scale was used to analyze the main three anti-trafficking policy areas: (i) prosecuting (criminalizing) traffickers, (ii) protecting victims, and (iii) preventing the crime of human trafficking. Each sub-index of prosecution, protection and prevention was aggregated to the overall index with an unweighted sum, with the overall index ranging from a score of 3 (worst) to 15 (best). It is available for up to 177 countries annually for 2000 to 2015 (the 2015 report, published in 2016, is the last as of 26.11.2018).
In 2015, three countries demonstrated the highest possible rankings in policies for all three dimensions (overall score 15). These countries were Austria, Spain and the United Kingdom. There were four countries with a near perfect score of 14 (Belgium, Philippines, Armenia, and South Korea). Four more scored 13 points, including the USA. The worst score, the minimum possible, is 3. In addition to North Korea, Libya, Syria, Eritrea and the BES Islands scored 3 with both Iran and Russia scoring only 4 (along with Kiribati, Yemen, and Equatorial Guinea).[citation needed] For more information view the Human Trafficking Research and Measurement website.[62]
Religious declaration[edit]
In 2014, for the first time in history major leaders of many religions, Buddhist, Anglican, Catholic, and Orthodox Christian, Hindu, Jewish, and Muslim, met to sign a shared commitment against modern-day slavery; the declaration they signed calls for the elimination of slavery and human trafficking by the year 2020.[63] The signatories were: Pope Francis, Mātā Amṛtānandamayī (also known as Amma), Bhikkhuni Thich Nu Chân Không (representing Zen Master Thích Nhất Hạnh), Datuk K Sri Dhammaratana, Chief High Priest of Malaysia, Rabbi Abraham Skorka, Rabbi David Rosen, Abbas Abdalla Abbas Soliman, Undersecretary of State of Al Azhar Alsharif (representing Mohamed Ahmed El-Tayeb, Grand Imam of Al-Azhar), Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi, Sheikh Naziyah Razzaq Jaafar, Special advisor of Grand Ayatollah (representing Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Basheer Hussain al Najafi), Sheikh Omar Abboud, Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Metropolitan Emmanuel of France (representing Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew.)[63]
Anti-trafficking initiatives[edit]
One of the organizations taking the most active part in the anti-trafficking is the United Nations. In early 2016 the Permanent Mission of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the United Nations held an interactive discussion entitled 'Responding to Current Challenges in Trafficking in Human Beings'.[65]
One of the current efforts being done to combat human trafficking is an app called TraffickCam.[66] This app was created by the Exchange Initiative[67] and researchers at Washington University. TraffckCam was launched on June 20, 2016 and enables anyone to take photos of their hotel rooms, which then gets uploaded to a large database of hotel images. Since human trafficking victims are often found in hotel rooms for online advertisements, law enforcement and investigators can use these photos to help find and prosecute traffickers.[68]
Anti-trafficking awareness and fundraising campaigns constitute a significant portion of anti-trafficking initiatives.[69] The 24 Hour Race is one such initiative that focuses on increasing awareness among high school students in Asia.[70] The Blue Campaign is another anti-trafficking initiative that works with the U.S. Department of Homeland Security to combat human trafficking and bring freedom to exploited victims.[71]
Vulnerable groups[edit]
Trafficking in Persons Report released in June 2016 states that 'refugees and migrants; lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) individuals; religious minorities; people with disabilities; and those who are stateless' are the most at-risk for human trafficking. Governments best protect victims from being exploited when the needs of vulnerable populations are understood.[72] Additionally, in its Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, the United Nations notes that women and children are particularly at risk for human trafficking and revictimization. The Protocol requires State Parties not only to enact measures that prevent human trafficking but also to address the factors that exacerbate women and children's vulnerability, including 'poverty, underdevelopment and lack of equal opportunity.'[73]
Types[edit]
Trafficking of children[edit]
Trafficking of children involves the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of children for the purpose of exploitation. Commercial sexual exploitation of children can take many forms, including forcing a child into prostitution[74][75] or other forms of sexual activity or child pornography. Child exploitation may also involve forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude, the removal of organs,[76] illicit international adoption, trafficking for early marriage, recruitment as child soldiers, for use in begging or as athletes (such as child camel jockeys[77] or football players[78]).
IOM statistics indicate that a significant minority (35%) of trafficked persons it assisted in 2011 were less than 18 years of age, which is roughly consistent with estimates from previous years. It was reported in 2010 that Thailand and Brazil were considered to have the worst child sex trafficking records.[79]
Traffickers in children may take advantage of the parents' extreme poverty. Parents may sell children to traffickers in order to pay off debts or gain income, or they may be deceived concerning the prospects of training and a better life for their children. They may sell their children into labour, sex trafficking, or illegal adoptions.
The adoption process, legal and illegal, when abused can sometimes result in cases of trafficking of babies and pregnant women around the world.[80] In David M. Smolin's 2005 papers on child trafficking and adoption scandals between India and the United States,[81][82] he presents the systemic vulnerabilities in the inter-country adoption system that makes adoption scandals predictable.
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child at Article 34, states, 'States Parties undertake to protect the child from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse'.[83] In the European Union, commercial sexual exploitation of children is subject to a directive – Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography.[84]
The Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption (or Hague Adoption Convention) is an international convention dealing with international adoption, that aims at preventing child laundering, child trafficking, and other abuses related to international adoption.[85]
The Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict seeks to prevent forceful recruitment (e.g. by guerrilla forces) of children for use in armed conflicts.[86]
Sex trafficking[edit]
The International Labour Organization claims that sex trafficking affects 4.5 million people worldwide.[87] Most victims find themselves in coercive or abusive situations from which escape is both difficult and dangerous.[88]
Trafficking for sexual exploitation was formerly thought of as the organized movement of people, usually women, between countries and within countries for sex work with the use of physical coercion, deception and bondage through forced debt. However, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (US),[89] does not require movement for the offence. The issue becomes contentious when the element of coercion is removed from the definition to incorporate facilitation of consensual involvement in prostitution. For example, in the United Kingdom, the Sexual Offences Act 2003 incorporated trafficking for sexual exploitation but did not require those committing the offence to use coercion, deception or force, so that it also includes any person who enters the UK to carry out sex work with consent as having been 'trafficked.'[90] In addition, any minor involved in a commercial sex act in the US while under the age of 18 qualifies as a trafficking victim, even if no force, fraud or coercion is involved, under the definition of 'Severe Forms of Trafficking in Persons' in the US Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000.[89]
Sexual trafficking includes coercing a migrant into a sexual act as a condition of allowing or arranging the migration. Sexual trafficking uses physical or sexual coercion, deception, abuse of power and bondage incurred through forced debt. Trafficked women and children, for instance, are often promised work in the domestic or service industry, but instead are sometimes taken to brothels where they are required to undertake sex work, while their passports and other identification papers are confiscated. They may be beaten or locked up and promised their freedom only after earning – through prostitution – their purchase price, as well as their travel and visa costs.[91][92]
Forced marriage[edit]
A forced marriage is a marriage where one or both participants are married without their freely given consent.[93]Servile marriage is defined as a marriage involving a person being sold, transferred or inherited into that marriage.[94] According to ECPAT, 'Child trafficking for forced marriage is simply another manifestation of trafficking and is not restricted to particular nationalities or countries'.[3]
A forced marriage qualifies as a form of human trafficking in certain situations. If a woman is sent abroad, forced into the marriage and then repeatedly compelled to engage in sexual conduct with her new husband, then her experience is that of sex trafficking. If the bride is treated as a domestic servant by her new husband and/or his family, then this is a form of labour trafficking.[95]
Labour trafficking[edit]
Labour trafficking is the movement of persons for the purpose of forced labour and services.[96] It may involve bonded labour, involuntary servitude, domestic servitude, and child labour.[96] Labour trafficking happens most often within the domain of domestic work, agriculture, construction, manufacturing and entertainment; andmigrant workers and indigenous people are especially at risk of becoming victims.[87] People smuggling operations are also known to traffic people for the exploitation of their labour, for example, as transporters.[97]
Trafficking for organ trade[edit]
Trafficking in organs is a form of human trafficking. It can take different forms. In some cases, the victim is compelled into giving up an organ. In other cases, the victim agrees to sell an organ in exchange of money/goods, but is not paid (or paid less). Finally, the victim may have the organ removed without the victim's knowledge (usually when the victim is treated for another medical problem/illness – real or orchestrated problem/illness). Migrant workers, homeless persons, and illiterate persons are particularly vulnerable to this form of exploitation. Trafficking of organs is an organized crime, involving several offenders:[98]
- the recruiter
- the transporter
- the medical staff
- the middlemen/contractors
- the buyers
Trafficking for organ trade often seeks kidneys. Trafficking in organs is a lucrative trade because in many countries the waiting lists for patients who need transplants are very long.[99]
Efforts[edit]
There are many different estimates of how large the human trafficking and sex trafficking industries are. According to scholar Kevin Bales, author of Disposable People (2004), estimates that as many as 27 million people are in 'modern-day slavery' across the globe.[100][101] In 2008, the U.S. Department of State estimates that 2 million children are exploited by the global commercial sex trade.[102] In the same year, a study classified 12.3 million individuals worldwide as 'forced laborers, bonded laborers or sex-trafficking victims.' Approximately 1.39 million of these individuals worked as commercial sex slaves, with women and girls comprising 98% of that 1.36 million.[103]
The enactment of the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act (TVPA) in 2000 by the United States Congress and its subsequent re-authorizations established the Department of State's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, which engages with foreign governments to fight human trafficking and publishes a Trafficking in Persons Report annually. The Trafficking in Persons Report evaluates each country's progress in anti-trafficking and places each country onto one of three tiers based on their governments' efforts to comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking as prescribed by the TVPA.[104] However, questions have been raised by critical anti-trafficking scholars about the basis of this tier system, its heavy focus on compliance with state department protocols, and its failure to consider 'risk' and the likely prevalence of trafficking when rating the efforts of diverse countries.[105]
In particular, there were three main components of the TVPA, commonly called the three P's:
PROTECTION: The TVPA increased the US Government's efforts to protect trafficked foreign national victims including, but not limited to:Victims of trafficking, many of whom were previously ineligible for government assistance, were provided assistance; and a non-immigrant status for victims of trafficking if they cooperated in the investigation and prosecution of traffickers (T-Visas, as well as providing other mechanisms to ensure the continued presence of victims to assist in such investigations and prosecutions).
PROSECUTION: The TVPA authorized the US Government to strengthen efforts to prosecute traffickers including, but not limited to: Creating a series of new crimes on trafficking, forced labour, and document servitude that supplemented existing limited crimes related to slavery and involuntary servitude; and recognizing that modern-day slavery takes place in the context of fraud and coercion, as well as force, and is based on new clear definitions for both trafficking into sexual exploitation and labour exploitation: Sex trafficking was defined as, 'a commercial sex act that is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act has not attained 18 years of age'. Labour trafficking was defined as, 'the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labour or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery'.
PREVENTION: The TVPA allowed for increased prevention measures including: Authorizing the US Government to assist foreign countries with their efforts to combat trafficking, as well as address trafficking within the United States, including through research and awareness-raising; and providing foreign countries with assistance in drafting laws to prosecute trafficking, creating programs for trafficking victims, and assistance with implementing effective means of investigation.[106]
Then Secretary of State Hillary Clinton later identified a fourth P, 'partnership', in 2009 to serve as a, 'pathway to progress in the effort against modern-day slavery.'
Findings of the legislative framework in place in different countries to prevent/reduce human trafficking. The findings are from the 2011 Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report[107]- GREEN – Tier 1
- YELLOW – Tier 2
- ORANGE – Tier 2½
- RED – Tier 3
- GREY – No data
Structural factors[edit]
A complex set of factors fuel sex trafficking, including poverty, unemployment, social norms that discriminate against women, commercial demand for sex, institutional challenges, and globalization.
Poverty and globalization[edit]
Poverty and lack of educational and economic opportunities in one's hometown may lead women to voluntarily migrate and then be involuntarily trafficked into sex work.[108][109] As globalization opened up national borders to greater exchange of goods and capital, labour migration also increased. Less wealthy countries have fewer options for livable wages. The economic impact of globalization pushes people to make conscious decisions to migrate and be vulnerable to trafficking. Gender inequalities that hinder women from participating in the formal sector also push women into informal sectors.[110]
Long waiting lists for organs in the United States and Europe created a thriving international black market. Traffickers harvest organs, particularly kidneys, to sell for large profit and often without properly caring for or compensating the victims. Victims often come from poor, rural communities and see few other options than to sell organs illegally.[111] Wealthy countries' inability to meet organ demand within their own borders perpetuates trafficking. By reforming their internal donation system, Iran achieved a surplus of legal donors and provides an instructive model for eliminating both organ trafficking and -shortage.[112]
Globalization and the rise of Internet technology has also facilitated sex trafficking. Online classified sites and social networks such as Craigslist have been under intense scrutiny for being used by johns and traffickers in facilitating sex trafficking and sex work in general. Traffickers use explicit sites and underground sites (e.g. Craigslist, Backpage, MySpace) to market, recruit, sell, and exploit women. Facebook, Twitter, and other social networking sites are suspected for similar uses. For example, Randal G. Jennings was convicted of sex trafficking five underage girls by forcing them to advertise on Craigslist and driving them to meet the customers.[citation needed] According to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, online classified ads reduce the risks of finding prospective customers.[113] Studies have identified the Internet as the single biggest facilitator of commercial sex trade, although it is difficult to ascertain which women advertised are sex trafficking victims.[114] Traffickers and pimps use the Internet to recruit minors, since Internet and social networking sites usage have significantly increased especially among children.[115]
Organized criminals can generate up to several thousand dollars per day from one trafficked girl, and the Internet has further increased profitability of sex trafficking and child trafficking. With faster access to a wider clientele, more sexual encounters can be scheduled.[116] Victims and clients, according to a New York City report on sex trafficking in minors, increasingly use the Internet to meet customers. Because of protests, Craigslist has since closed its adult services section. According to authorities, Backpage is now the main source for advertising trafficking victims.[117] Investigators also frequently browse online classified ads to identify potential underage girls who are trafficked.
While globalization fostered new technologies that may exacerbate sex trafficking, technology can also be used to assist law enforcement and anti-trafficking efforts. A study was done on online classified ads surrounding the Super Bowl. A number of reports have noticed increase in sex trafficking during previous years of the Super Bowl.[118] For the 2011 Super Bowl held in Dallas, Texas, the Backpage for Dallas area experienced a 136% increase on the number of posts in the Adult section on Super Bowl Sunday; in contrast, Sundays typically have the lowest number of posts. Researchers analyzed the most salient terms in these online ads, which suggested that many escorts were traveling across state lines to Dallas specifically for the Super Bowl, and found that the self-reported ages were higher than usual. Twitter was another social networking platform studied for detecting sex trafficking. Digital tools can be used to narrow the pool of sex trafficking cases, albeit imperfectly and with uncertainty.[119]
However, there has been no evidence found actually linking the Super Bowl – or any other sporting event – to increased trafficking or prostitution.[120][121]
Political and institutional challenges[edit]
Corrupt and inadequately trained police officers can be complicit in sex trafficking and/or commit violence against sex workers, including sex trafficked victims.[122] Human traffickers often incorporate abuse of the legal system into their control tactics by making threats of deportation [123] or by turning victims into the authorities, possibly resulting in the incarceration of the victims.[124]
Anti-trafficking agendas from different groups can also be in conflict. In the movement for sex workers' rights, sex workers establish unions and organizations, which seek to eliminate trafficking. However, law enforcement also seek to eliminate trafficking and to prosecute trafficking, and their work may infringe on sex workers' rights and agency. For example, the sex workers union DMSC (Durbar Mahila Samanwaya Committee) in Kolkata, India, has 'self-regulatory boards' (SRBs) that patrol the red light districts and assist girls who are underage or trafficked. The union opposes police intervention and interferes with police efforts to bring minor girls out of brothels, on the grounds that police action might have an adverse impact on non-trafficked sex workers, especially because police officers in many places are corrupt and violent in their operations.[122] Critics argue that since sex trafficking is an economic and violent crime, it calls for law enforcement to intervene and prevent violence against victims.
Criminalization of sex work also may foster the underground market for sex work and enable sex trafficking.[108]
Difficult political situations such as civil war and social conflict are push factors for migration and trafficking. A study reported that larger countries, the richest and the poorest countries, and countries with restricted press freedom are likely to engage in more sex trafficking. Specifically, being in a transitional economy made a country nineteen times more likely to be ranked in the highest trafficking category, and gender inequalities in a country's labour market also correlated with higher trafficking rates.[125]
An annual US State Department report in June 2013 cited Russia and China as among the worst offenders in combatting forced labour and sex trafficking, raising the possibility of US sanctions being leveraged against these countries.[126] In 1997 alone as many as 175,000 young women from Russia, as well as the former Soviet Union, were sold as commodities in the sex markets of the developed countries in Europe and the Americas.[127]
In 2013, the Supreme Court of Canada declared the laws which effectively prohibited prostitution illegal. It delayed the implementation of this ruling for one year to give the parliament time to enact replacement laws, if it so desired.[128]
Commercial demand for sex[edit]
Abolitionists who seek an end to sex trafficking explain the nature of sex trafficking as an economic supply and demand model. In this model, male demand for prostitutes leads to a market of sex work, which, in turn, fosters sex trafficking, the illegal trade and coercion of people into sex work, and pimps and traffickers become 'distributors' who supply people to be sexually exploited. The demand for sex trafficking can also be facilitated by some pimps' and traffickers' desire for women whom they can exploit as workers because they do not require wages, safe working circumstances, and agency in choosing customers.[108]
Consequences[edit]
For victims[edit]
Sex trafficking victims face threats of violence from many sources, including customers, pimps, brothel owners, madams, traffickers, and corrupt local law enforcement officials. Raids as an anti-sex trafficking measure have the potential to help, and also to protect sex trafficked victims. Because of their potentially complicated legal status and their potential language barriers, the arrest or fear of arrest creates stress and other emotional trauma for trafficking victims. Victims may also experience physical violence from law enforcement during raids.[130][131] The challenges facing victims often continue of course, after their experience of 'rescue' or removal from coercive sexual exploitation. In addition to coping with their past traumatic experiences, former trafficking victims often experience social alienation in the host and home countries. Stigmatization, social exclusion, and intolerance often make it difficult for former victims to integrate into their host community, or to reintegrate into their former community. Accordingly, one of the central aims of protection assistance, is the promotion of (re)integration.[132][133] Too often however, governments and large institutional donors offer little funding to support the provision of assistance and social services to former trafficking victims. As the victims are also pushed into drug trafficking, many of them face criminal sanctions also.[134]
Psychological[edit]
Short-term impact – psychological coercion[edit]
The use of coercion by perpetrators and traffickers involves the use of extreme control. Perpetrators expose the victim to high amounts of psychological stress induced by threats, fear, and physical and emotional violence. Tactics of coercion are reportedly used in three phases of trafficking: recruitment, initiation, and indoctrination.[135] During the initiation phase, traffickers use foot-in-the-door techniques of persuasion to lead their victims into various trafficking industries. This manipulation creates an environment where the victim becomes completely dependent upon the authority of the trafficker.[135] Traffickers take advantage of family dysfunction, homelessness, and history of childhood abuse to psychologically manipulate women and children into the trafficking industry.[136]
One form of psychological coercion particularly common in cases of sex trafficking and forced prostitution is Stockholm syndrome. Many women entering into the sex trafficking industry are minors whom have already experienced prior sexual abuse.[137] Traffickers take advantage of young girls by luring them into the business through force and coercion, but more often through false promises of love, security, and protection. This form of coercion works to recruit and initiate the victim into the life of a sex worker, while also reinforcing a 'trauma bond', also known as Stockholm syndrome. Stockholm syndrome is a psychological response where the victim becomes attached to his or her perpetrator.[137][138]
The goal of a trafficker is to turn a human being into a slave. To do this, perpetrators employ tactics that can lead to the psychological consequence of learned helplessness for the victims, where they sense that they no longer have any autonomy or control over their lives.[136] Traffickers may hold their victims captive, expose them to large amounts of alcohol or use drugs, keep them in isolation, or withhold food or sleep.[136] During this time the victim often begins to feel the onset of depression, guilt and self-blame, anger and rage, and sleep disturbances, PTSD, numbing, and extreme stress. Under these pressures, the victim can fall into the hopeless mental state of learned helplessness.[135][139][140]
For victims of specifically trafficked for the purpose of forced prostitution and sexual slavery, initiation into the trade is almost always characterized by violence.[136] Traffickers hunt down their victims and employ practices of sexual abuse, torture, brainwashing, repeated rape and physical assault until the victim submits to his or her fate as a sexual slave. Victims experience verbal threats, social isolation, and intimidation before they accept their role as a prostitute.[141]
For those enslaved in situations of forced labor, learned helplessness can also manifest itself through the trauma of living as a slave. Reports indicate that captivity for the person and financial gain of their owners adds additional psychological trauma. Victims are often cut off from all forms of social connection, as isolation allows the perpetrator to destroy the victim's sense of self and increase his or her dependence on the perpetrator.[135]
Long-term impact[edit]
Human trafficking victims may experience complex trauma as a result of repeated cases of intimate relationship trauma over long periods of time including, but not limited to, sexual abuse, domestic violence, forced prostitution, or gang rape. Complex trauma involves multifaceted conditions of depression, anxiety, self-hatred, dissociation, substance abuse, self-destructive behaviors, medical and somatic concerns, despair, and revictimization. Psychology researchers report that, although similar to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), Complex trauma is more expansive in diagnosis because of the effects of prolonged trauma.[142]
Victims of sex trafficking often get 'branded'[143] by their traffickers or pimps. These tattoos usually consist of bar codes or the trafficker's name or rules. Even if a victim escapes their trafficker's control or gets rescued, these tattoos are painful reminders of their past and results in emotional distress. To get these tattoos removed or covered-up can cost hundreds of dollars.[144]
Psychological reviews have shown that the chronic stress experienced by many victims of human trafficking can compromise the immune system.[136] Several studies found that chronic stressors (like trauma or loss) suppressed cellular and humoral immunity.[139] Victims may develop STDs and HIV/AIDS.[145] Perpetrators frequently use substance abuse as a means to control their victims, which leads to compromised health, self-destructive behavior, and long-term physical harm.[146] Furthermore, victims have reported treatment similar to torture, where their bodies are broken and beaten into submission.[146][147]
Children are especially vulnerable to these developmental and psychological consequences of trafficking due to their age. In order to gain complete control of the child, traffickers often destroy physical and mental health of the children through persistent physical and emotional abuse.[148] Victims experience severe trauma on a daily basis that devastates the healthy development of self-concept, self-worth, biological integrity, and cognitive functioning.[149] Children who grow up in constant environments of exploitation frequently exhibit antisocial behavior, over-sexualized behavior, self-harm, aggression, distrust of adults, dissociative disorders, substance abuse, complex trauma, and attention deficit disorders.[138][148][149][150] Stockholm syndrome is also a common problem for girls while they are trafficked, which can hinder them from both trying to escape, and moving forward in psychological recovery programs.[147]
Although 98% of the sex trade is composed of women and girls[147] there is an effort to gather empirical evidence about the psychological impact of abuse common in sex trafficking upon young boys.[149][151] Boys often will experience forms of post-traumatic stress disorder, but also additional stressors of social stigma of homosexuality associated with sexual abuse for boys, and externalization of blame, increased anger, and desire for revenge.
HIV/AIDS[edit]
Estimated prevalence in % of HIV among young adults (15–49) per country as of 2011.[152]<0.10 0.5–1 | 5–15 |
Sex trafficking increases the risk of contracting HIV/AIDS.[153] The HIV/AIDS pandemic can be both a cause and a consequence of sex trafficking. On one hand, child-prostitutes are sought by customers because they are perceived as being less likely to be HIV positive, and this demand leads to child sex trafficking. On the other hand, trafficking leads to the proliferation of HIV, because victims, being vulnerable and often young/inexperienced, cannot protect themselves properly, and get infected.[154]
Economic impacts[edit]
According to estimates from the International Labour Organization (ILO), every year the human trafficking industry generates 32 billion USD, half of which ($15.5 billion) is made in industrialized countries, and a third of which ($9.7 billion) is made in Asia.[155] A 2011 paper published in Human Rights Review, 'Sex Trafficking: Trends, Challenges and Limitations of International Law', notes that, since 2000, the number of sex-trafficking victims has risen while costs associated with trafficking have declined: 'Coupled with the fact that trafficked sex slaves are the single most profitable type of slave, costing on average $1,895 each but generating $29,210 annually, [there are] stark predictions about the likely growth in commercial sex slavery in the future.'[103] Sex trafficking victims rarely get a share of the money that they make through coerced sex work, which further keeps them oppressed.[156] As of 2018, profits from human trafficking were about around 150 billion USD each year ranking it along with drug trafficking as one of the most profitable transnational crimes. [157]
Popular culture[edit]
Criticism[edit]
Both the public debate on human trafficking and the actions undertaken by the anti-human traffickers have been criticized by Zbigniew Dumienski, a former research analyst at the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies.[158] The criticism touches upon statistics and data on human trafficking, the concept itself, and anti-trafficking measures.
Problems with statistics and data[edit]
According to a former Wall Street Journal columnist, figures used in human trafficking estimates rarely have identifiable sources or transparent methodologies behind them and in most (if not all) instances, they are mere guesses.[159][160] Dumienski and Laura Agustin argue that this is a result of the fact that it is impossible to produce reliable statistics on a phenomenon happening in the shadow economy.[158][161] According to a UNESCO Bangkok researcher, statistics on human trafficking may be unreliable due to overrepresentation of sex trafficking. As an example, he cites flaws in Thai statistics, who discount men from their official numbers because by law they cannot be considered trafficking victims due to their gender.[162]
A 2012 article in the International Communication Gazette examined the effect of two communication theories (agenda-building and agenda-setting) on media coverage on human trafficking in the United States and Britain. The article analyzed four newspapers including the Guardian and the Washington Post and categorized the content into various categories. Overall, the article found that sex trafficking was the most reported form of human trafficking by the newspapers that were analyzed (p. 154). Many of the other stories on trafficking were non-specific.[163]
Problems with the concept[edit]
According to Zbigniew Dumienski, the very concept of human trafficking is murky and misleading.[158] It has been argued that while human trafficking is commonly seen as a monolithic crime, in reality it may be an act of illegal migration that involves various different actions: some of them may be criminal or abusive, but others often involve consent and are legal.[158]Laura Agustin argues that not everything that might seem abusive or coercive is considered as such by the migrant. For instance, she states that: 'would-be travellers commonly seek help from intermediaries who sell information, services and documents. When travellers cannot afford to buy these outright, they go into debt'.[161] Dumienski says that while these debts might indeed be on very harsh conditions, they are usually incurred on a voluntary basis.[158] Furthermore, anti-humantrafficking actors often conflate clandestine migratory movements with forms of exploitation covered in human trafficking definitions, ignoring the fact that a migratory movement is not a requirement for human trafficking victimization.
The critics of the current approaches to trafficking say that a lot of the violence and exploitation faced by illegal migrants derives precisely from the fact that their migration and their work are illegal and not primarily because of trafficking.[164]
The international Save the Children organization also stated: 'The issue, however, gets mired in controversy and confusion when prostitution too is considered as a violation of the basic human rights of both adult women and minors, and equal to sexual exploitation per se…trafficking and prostitution become conflated with each other…On account of the historical conflation of trafficking and prostitution both legally and in popular understanding, an overwhelming degree of effort and interventions of anti-trafficking groups are concentrated on trafficking into prostitution.'[165]
Claudia Aradau of Open University claims that NGOs involved in anti-sex trafficking often employ 'politics of pity,' which promotes that all trafficked victims are completely guiltless, fully coerced into sex work, and experience the same degrees of physical suffering. One critic identifies two strategies that gain pity: denunciation – attributing all violence and suffering to the perpetrator – and sentiment – exclusively depicting the suffering of the women. NGOs' use of images of unidentifiable women suffering physically help display sex trafficking scenarios as all the same. She points out that not all trafficking victims have been abducted, abused physically, and repeatedly raped, unlike popular portrayals.[166] A study of the relationships between individuals who are defined as sex-trafficking victims by virtue of having a procurer (especially minors) concluded that assumptions about victimization and human trafficking do not do justice to the complex and often mutual relationships that exist between sex workers and their third parties.[167]
Problems with anti-trafficking measures[edit]
Groups like Amnesty International have been critical of insufficient or ineffective government measures to tackle human trafficking. Criticism includes a lack of understanding of human trafficking issues, poor identification of victims and a lack of resources for the key pillars of anti-trafficking – identification, protection, prosecution and prevention. For example, Amnesty International has called the UK government's new anti-trafficking measures 'not fit for purpose.'[168]
Victim identification and protection in the UK[edit]
In the UK, human trafficking cases are processed by the same officials to simultaneously determine the refugee and trafficking victim statuses of a person. However, criteria for qualifying as a refugee and a trafficking victim differ and they have different needs for staying in a country. A person may need assistance as a trafficking victim but his/her circumstances may not necessarily meet the threshold for asylum. In which case, not being granted refugee status affects their status as a trafficked victim and thus their ability to receive help. Reviews of the statistics from the National Referral Mechanism (NRM), a tool created by the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (CoE Convention) to help states effectively identify and care for trafficking victims, found that positive decisions for non-European Union citizens were much lower than that of EU and UK citizens. According to data on the NRM decisions from April 2009 to April 2011, an average of 82.8% of UK and EU citizens were conclusively accepted as victims while an average of only 45.9% of non-EU citizens were granted the same status.[169] High refusal rates of non-EU people point to possible stereotypes and biases about regions and countries of origin which may hinder anti-trafficking efforts, since the asylum system is linked to the trafficking victim protection system.
Laura Agustin has suggested that, in some cases, 'anti-traffickers' ascribe victim status to immigrants who have made conscious and rational decisions to cross the borders knowing they will be selling sex and who do not consider themselves to be victims.[170] There have been instances in which the alleged victims of trafficking have actually refused to be rescued[171] or run away from the anti-trafficking shelters.[172]
In a 2013 lawsuit,[173] the Court of Appeal gave guidance to prosecuting authorities on the prosecution of victims of human trafficking, and held that the convictions of three Vietnamese children and one Ugandan woman ought to be quashed as the proceedings amounted to an abuse of the court's process.[174] The case was reported by the BBC[175] and one of the victims was interviewed by Channel 4.[176]
Law enforcement and the use of raids[edit]
In the U.S., services and protections for trafficked victims are related to cooperation with law enforcement. Legal procedures that involve prosecution and specifically, raids, are thus the most common anti-trafficking measures. Raids are conducted by law enforcement and by private actors and many organizations (sometimes in cooperation with law enforcement). Law enforcement perceive some benefits from raids, including the ability to locate and identify witnesses for legal processes, to dismantle 'criminal networks', and to rescue victims from abuse.[130]
The problems against anti-trafficking raids are related to the problem of the trafficking concept itself, as raids' purpose of fighting sex trafficking may be conflated with fighting prostitution. The Trafficking Victims Protection Re-authorization Act of 2005 (TVPRA) gives state and local law enforcement funding to prosecute customers of commercial sex, therefore some law enforcement agencies make no distinction between prostitution and sex trafficking. One study interviewed women who have experienced law enforcement operations as sex workers and found that during these raids meant to combat human trafficking, none of the women were ever identified as trafficking victims, and only one woman was asked whether she was coerced into sex work. The conflation of trafficking with prostitution, then, does not serve to adequately identify trafficking and help the victims. Raids are also problematic in that the women involved were most likely unclear about who was conducting the raid, what the purpose of the raid was, and what the outcomes of the raid would be.[130]
Law enforcement personnel agree that raids can intimidate trafficked persons and render subsequent law enforcement actions unsuccessful.Social workers and attorneys involved in anti-sex trafficking have negative opinions about raids. Service providers report a lack of uniform procedure for identifying trafficking victims after raids. The 26 interviewed service providers stated that local police never referred trafficked persons to them after raids. Law enforcement also often use interrogation methods that intimidate rather than assist potential trafficking victims. Additionally, sex workers sometimes face violence from the police during raids and arrests and in rehabilitation centers.[130]
As raids occur to brothels that may house sex workers as well as sex trafficked victims, raids affect sex workers in general. As clients avoid brothel areas that are raided but do not stop paying for sex, voluntary sex workers will have to interact with customers underground. Underground interactions means that sex workers take greater risks, where as otherwise they would be cooperating with other sex workers and with sex worker organizations to report violence and protect each other. One example of this is with HIV prevention. Sex workers collectives monitor condom use, promote HIV testing, and cares for and monitor the health of HIV positive sex workers. Raids disrupt communal HIV care and prevention efforts, and if HIV positive sex workers are rescued and removed from their community, their treatments are disrupted, furthering the spread of AIDS.[177]
Scholars Aziza Ahmed and Meena Seshu suggest reforms in law enforcement procedures so that raids are last resort, not violent, and are transparent in its purposes and processes. Furthermore, they suggest that since any trafficking victims will probably be in contact with other sex workers first, working with sex workers may be an alternative to the raid and rescue model.[177]
'End Demand' programs[edit]
Critics argue that End Demand programs are ineffective in that prostitution is not reduced, 'John schools' have little effect on deterrence and portray prostitutes negatively, and conflicts in interest arise between law enforcement and NGO service providers. A study found that Sweden's legal experiment (criminalizing clients of prostitution and providing services to prostitutes who want to exit the industry in order to combat trafficking) did not reduce the number of prostitutes, but instead increased exploitation of sex workers because of the higher risk nature of their work. No proper citation given for this study. The conclusion is strongly disputed. Other studies indicate that the policy is successful.The same study reported that johns' inclination to buy sex did not change as a result of john schools, and the programs targeted johns who are poor and colored immigrants. Some john schools also intimidate johns into not purchasing sex again by depicting prostitutes as drug addicts, HIV positive, violent, and dangerous, which further marginalizes sex workers. John schools require program fees, and police's involvement in NGOs who provide these programs create conflicts of interest especially with money involved.[178][179]
Modern feminist perspectives[edit]
There are different feminist perspectives on sex trafficking. The third-wave feminist perspective of sex trafficking seeks to harmonize the dominant and liberal feminist views of sex trafficking. The dominant feminist view focuses on 'sexualized domination', which includes issues of pornography, female sex labor in a patriarchal world, rape, and sexual harassment. Dominant feminism emphasizes sex trafficking as forced prostitution and considers the act exploitative. Liberal feminism sees all agents as capable of reason and choice. Liberal feminists support sex workers rights, and argue that women who voluntarily chose sex work are autonomous. The liberal feminist perspective finds sex trafficking problematic where it overrides consent of individuals.[180][181][182]
Third-wave feminism harmonizes the thoughts that while individuals have rights, overarching inequalities hinder women's capabilities. Third-wave feminism also considers that women who are trafficked and face oppression do not all face the same kinds of oppression. For example, third-wave feminist proponent Shelley Cavalieri identifies oppression and privilege in the intersections of race, class, and gender. Women from low socioeconomic class, generally from the Global South, face inequalities that differ from those of other sex trafficking victims. Therefore, it advocates for catering to individual trafficking victim because sex trafficking is not monolithic, and therefore there is not a one-size-fits-all intervention. This also means allowing individual victims to tell their unique experiences rather than essentializing all trafficking experiences. Lastly, third-wave feminism promotes increasing women's agency both generally and individually, so that they have the opportunity to act on their own behalf.[180][181][182]
Third-wave feminist perspective of sex trafficking is loosely related to Amartya Sen's and Martha Nussbaum's visions of the human capabilities approach to development. It advocates for creating viable alternatives for sex trafficking victims. Nussbaum articulated four concepts to increase trafficking victims' capabilities: education for victims and their children, microcredit and increased employment options, labor unions for low-income women in general, and social groups that connect women to one another.[181]
Social norms[edit]
According to modern Feminists, women and girls are more prone to trafficking also because of social norms that marginalize their value and status in society. By this perspective females face considerable gender discrimination both at home and in school. Stereotypes that women belong at home in the private sphere and that women are less valuable because they do not and are not allowed to contribute to formal employment and monetary gains the same way men do further marginalize women's status relative to men. Some religious beliefs also lead people to believe that the birth of girls are a result of bad karma,[citation needed] further cementing the belief that girls are not as valuable as boys. It is generally regarded by feminists that various social norms contribute to women's inferior position and lack of agency and knowledge, thus making them vulnerable to exploitation such as sex trafficking.[183]
Singapore[edit]
As of 2016, Singapore acceded to the United Nations Trafficking in Persons Protocol and affirmed on 28 September 2015 the commitment to combat people trafficking, especially women and children.[184]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
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- ^2016 Trafficking in Persons Report, U.S. Department of State
- ^A Victim-Centered Approach to Sex Trafficking Alvarez, Larry MS and Cañas-Moreira, Jocelyn.
- ^Rao, Smriti, & Christina Presenti, Understanding Human Trafficking Origin: A Cross-Country Empirical Analysis, in Feminist Economics, vol. 18, no. 2 (April 2012), pp. 231–263, esp. pp. 233–234.
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- ^'Challenging Human Trade in Sub-Saharan Africa: Reconstructing the Narrative of Human Trafficking for the Creation of a More Enabling Environment in 2037'. Journal of Futures Studies. 25 October 2018. doi:10.6531/jfs.201809_23(1).0004. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
- ^ abcdeDumienski, Zbigniew (2011). 'Critical Reflections on Anti-human Trafficking: The Case of Timor-Leste'(PDF). NTS Alert, May, Issue 2, Singapore: RSIS Centre for Non-Traditional Security (NTS) Studies for NTS-Asia.
- ^Bialik, Carl, 2010, 'Suspect Estimates of Sex Trafficking at the World Cup', The Wall Street Journal, 19 June.
- ^see also: US Government Accountability Office, 2006, Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Antitrafficking Efforts Abroad, Highlights of GAO-06-825 Report, Washington, DC.
- ^ abAgustin, Laura, 2008, Sex at the Margins: Migration, Labour Markets and the Rescue Industry, London and New York: Zed Books.
- ^Feingold, David A. (2010) 'Trafficking in Numbers' in P. Andreas and K. M. Greenhill (eds) Sex, Drugs, and Body Counts (London: Cornell University Press)
- ^Marchionni, D. M. (2012). 'International human trafficking: An agenda-building analysis of the US and British press'. International Communication Gazette. 74 (2): 145–158. doi:10.1177/1748048511432600.(subscription required)
- ^Gülçür, Leyla; İlkkaracan, Pınar (July – August 2002). 'The 'Natasha' experience: Migrant sex workers from the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in Turkey'(PDF). Women's Studies International Forum. 25 (4): 411–421. doi:10.1016/S0277-5395(02)00278-9.
- ^'Definition of Trafficking – Save the Children Nepal'. Archived from the original on 20 November 2007. Retrieved 11 January 2010.
- ^Aradau, Claudia (March 2004). 'The perverse politics of four-letter words: risk and pity in the securitisation of human trafficking'. Millennium: Journal of International Studies. 33 (2): 251–277. doi:10.1177/03058298040330020101.
- ^Marcus, Anthony; et al. (May 2014). 'Conflict and agency among sex workers and pimps: A closer look at domestic minor sex trafficking'. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 653 (1): 225–246. doi:10.1177/0002716214521993.
- ^'Anti-trafficking measures 'not fit for purpose' and breach international law – new report'. Amnesty.org.uk.
- ^Stepnitz, Abigail. 'A Lie More Disastrous than the Truth: Asylum and the Identification of Trafficked Women in the UK.' Anti Trafficking Review 1 (2012): 104–19. Anti Trafficking Review. Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women, June 2012. Web. 10 March 2013.
- ^Kerry Howley (26 December 2007). 'The Myth of the Migrant – Reason Magazine'. Reason.com. Retrieved 21 January 2012.
- ^'Chinese Prostitutes Resist Efforts to Rescue Them from Africa', 2011, Times LIVE, 1 January.
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- ^'case G.T. Stewart Solicitors'. 21 June 2013. Archived from the original on 7 November 2013.
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- ^'Vietnamese trafficking victims win appeal against convictions, BBC 21 June 2013'. BBC News.
- ^'Trafficking victim's nightmare journey to UK drug farm, Channel 4'. Channel 4 News.
- ^ abAziza Ahmed and Meena Seshu (June 2012). ''We Have the Right Not to Be 'rescued'…'*: When Anti-Trafficking Programmes Undermine the Health and Well-Being of Sex Workers'(PDF). Anti Trafficking Review. Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women. 1: 149–19. Archived from the original(PDF) on 12 August 2017.
- ^Wortley, S., Fischer, B., & Webster, C. (2002). Vice lessons: A survey of prostitution offenders enrolled in the Toronto John School Diversion Program' Canadian Journal of Criminology 3(3), 227–248: 394. Monto, Martin A. and Steve Garcia. 2001. 'Recidivism Among the Customers of Female Street Prostitutes: Do Intervention Programs Help?' Western Criminology Review 3 (2). (Online)]
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- ^ abBrenner, Johanna. 'Selling Sexual Services: A Socialist Feminist Perspective'. Europe Solidaire Sans Frontières. Système de Publication pour un Internet Partagé.
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External links[edit]
Library resources about Human trafficking |
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- Trafficking of women at Curlie
- The Islamic State and its human trafficking practice, pp. 15–21.
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Human trafficking is a modern form of slavery, with illegal smuggling and trading of people (including minors), for forced labor or sexual exploitation.
Trafficking is officially defined as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of persons by means of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, or abuse of power of a position of vulnerability for the purpose of exploitation. Human trafficking is not synonymous with forced migration or smuggling.[1]
In the United States, human trafficking tends to occur around international travel-hubs with large immigrant populations, notably California, Texas and Georgia. The U.S. Justice Department estimates that 35,500–170,500 people enter illegally into the country every year. The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates that including U.S. citizens and immigrants 57,700 people across the world are victims of human trafficking.[2] Those being trafficked include young children, teenagers, men and women and can be domestic citizens or foreign nationals.
Under federal law (18 USC § 1589), it is a crime to make people work by use of force, coercion or fear. U.S. State Department's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons placed the country in 'Tier 1' in 2017.[3]
On April 11, 2018, U.S. President Donald Trump signed the Stop Enabling Sex Traffickers Act into law, which is aimed at closing websites that enable the crime to occur, and prosecuting their owners and users.[4]
- 1Reports
- 2Prevalence
- 3Types
- 3.1Sex trafficking
- 3.2Labor trafficking
- 4Human trafficking among Latin Americans
- 4.3Labor trafficking
- 4.4Sex trafficking
- 5Structural factors
- 6Anti-trafficking laws and policies
- 6.1Policy of the federal government
- 9Media
- 10Policy of state governments
- 10.1Arizona
- 10.2California
- 10.6Nevada
- 10.8New York
- 10.9Ohio
- 10.11Texas
- 10.11.2Houston
- 10.12Virginia
Reports[edit]
According to the Department of State 2011 Trafficking in Persons Report, the United States is a Tier 1 country for trafficking. Tier 1 means that the government is in compliance with the U.S. government's minimum standards of the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 to eliminate trafficking.[5] The minimum standards as listed in section 108 of the legislation are:
(1) The government of the country should prohibit severe forms of trafficking in persons and punish acts of such trafficking.
(2) For the knowing commission of any act of sex trafficking involving force, fraud, coercion, or in which the victim of sex trafficking is a child incapable of giving meaningful consent, or of trafficking which includes rape or kidnapping or which causes a death, the government of the country should prescribe punishment commensurate with that for grave crimes, such as forcible sexual assault.
(3) For the knowing commission of any act of a severe form of trafficking in persons, the government of the country should prescribe punishment that is sufficiently stringent to deter and that adequately reflects the heinous nature of the offense.
(4) The government of the country should make serious and sustained efforts to eliminate severe forms of trafficking in persons.[6][7]
The U.S. is working to eliminate human trafficking in the U.S. and worldwide. Each year, the Department of State releases data compiled on the state of human trafficking in many different countries including the U.S. in accordance with the Trafficking Victim Protection Act of 2000's standards [see below].[6] It also releases data on trafficking cases under federal prosecution and estimates of those trafficked; however, the report also cautions that the data may not be representative of the number of individuals actually trafficked due to both the lack of cohesion between many states and agencies battling human trafficking and the inability to account for undiscovered victims.[8] Below is a compilation of data from a variety of U.S. agencies and the United Nations.
Attorney General[edit]
According to the Attorney General's 2005 report, an estimated 14,500–17,500 victims are trafficked into the United States each year, although that figure may be overstated.[9]
2011 Department of Justice report[edit]
The findings of the U.S. Department of Justice's 2011 report, 'Characteristics of Suspected Human Trafficking Incidents, 2008-2010', include:
- From 2008 to 2010, Federal anti-trafficking task forces opened 2,515 suspected cases of human trafficking.
- 82% of suspected incidents were classified as sex trafficking and nearly half of these involved victims under the age of 18.
- Approximately 10% of the incidents were classified as labor trafficking.
- 83% of victims in confirmed sex-trafficking incidents were identified as U.S. citizens, while most confirmed labor-trafficking victims were identified as undocumented immigrants (67%) or legal immigrants (28%).
- 25% of the confirmed victims received a 'T visa,' part of a federal program designed to aid victims of trafficking.
While the findings represent the government's best estimate, the authors caution that 'the data described in this report reflect the information that was available to, and entered by, these state and local law enforcement agencies', and such data systems are still being established and are likely not recording all incidents.[10]
2011 Department of State report[edit]
According to the Department of State, the U.S. was identified as a Tier 1 country with unspecified federal agencies charging 181 individuals with trafficking other humans and obtaining 141 convictions in 103 human trafficking prosecutions. Of the prosecutions reported by the Department of State, 32 were labor trafficking cases and 71 were sex trafficking cases.[11]
Immigration and Customs Enforcement[edit]
During 2009, ICE initiated 566 cases. These investigations led to 388 criminal arrests, more than double the number of arrests from the previous fiscal year, resulting in 148 indictments and 165 convictions.[12]
Human Smuggling and Trafficking Center[edit]
The Human Smuggling and Trafficking Center is an inter-agency intelligence center that gathers information on illicit travel—including that of trafficking. The center also coordinates with foreign agencies and diplomats to monitor and fight trafficking on an international basis. With the enactment of TVPRA 2008, the HSTC was also charged with the responsibility of compiling a comprehensive inter-agency database on persons identified as victims of human trafficking.[12]
Prevalence[edit]
Geographic distribution of forced laborers[edit]
According to the 2011 Department of State report, victims are largely from Thailand, India, Mexico, Philippines, Haiti, Honduras, El Salvador, and the Dominican Republic, though U.S. citizens have also been victims of human trafficking.[11] Relevant to people being trafficked from other countries, '[v]ulnerabilities are increasingly found in visa programs for legally documented students and temporary workers who typically fill labor needs in the hospitality, landscaping, construction, food service, and agricultural industries.'[13]
Human trafficking occurred consistently in high-population areas that serve as hubs for international travel and that have large immigrant populations. In the study, higher numbers of reported cases were found in California, New York, Texas, and Florida. This is consistent with the U.S. Department of Justice report that the largest concentrations of survivors of human trafficking were located in California, Oklahoma, New York, and Texas.[14] According to the National Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC) roughly 979,000 of the human trafficking cases reported by state are from California, making it the most affected area in the United States.[15]
Criticism[edit]
In a 2007 Washington Post expose entitled 'Human Trafficking Evokes Outrage, Little Evidence', human trafficking into the United States is described as essentially nonexistent.[16]
However, there are more victims than those who have applied for and been granted certification. First, certification requires that the victim be willing to cooperate with a police investigation. Following a police raid, some victims just want to go home, some victims don't want to cooperate with police and are deported, and some victims are afraid to testify against vicious traffickers. The application for certification requires support from law enforcement. If the victim is not seen as useful for a case, or if the police don't want to pursue a case, they have no support to stay in the U.S. and will not be counted as victims of trafficking.[citation needed]
Nevertheless, the number of identified victims (or convicted traffickers) is far less than the official estimate (by the U.S. State Department) that as many 14,500–17,500 individuals are trafficked into the United States every year.[17] A recent analysis by the Justice Department's Bureau of Justice Statistics showed a gap between the claimed number of victims and the number of confirmed cases of victimization.[18]
A gap between the alleged number of victims and the number of confirmed cases also characterizes the situation worldwide. The U.S. Department of State recently reported that 0.4 percent of the estimated victims of trafficking internationally had been officially identified.[19] The State Department report provided no source for the number of either estimated or identified victims. Some critics, like Markon in the Washington Post, note that all such estimates are deeply flawed.[20]
Types[edit]
Research conducted by University of California at Berkeley on behalf of the anti-trafficking organization Free the Slaves found that about 46% of people in slavery in the United States are forced into prostitution. The U.S. Department of Justice prosecuted 360 defendants for human trafficking from 2001 to 2007 and gained 238 convictions.[21]
From January 2007 through September 2008, there were 1,229 alleged cases of human trafficking nationally; 1,018 of them, nearly 83 percent, were sex trafficking cases. Sex trafficking has a close relationship with migrant smuggling operations headed by Mexican, Eastern European, and Asian crime organizations.[22] Domestic servitude claims 27% of people in slavery in the U.S., agriculture 10%, and other occupations 17%.[14][23]
Sex trafficking[edit]
The U.S. Department of Health & Human Services estimated that between 240,000 and 325,000 children are at risk for sexual exploitation each year. Children who are considered runaways are at particular risk of prostitution or of being trafficked into the sex industry. Of the 1,682,900 children who were considered runaways for a period of time in 1999, 71% were considered at risk for prostitution.[21] 1,700 of those reported actually engaging in sexual activity in exchange for money. David Finkelhor, a University of New Hampshire professor who is director of the Crimes Against Children Research Center, said 'I wouldn't put any stock in these figures as indicators of what is going on today'.[24] According to the United States Department of State an estimated 20,000 women and children are trafficked into the United States each year by crossing the Mexico–United States border.[25]
Commercial sexual exploitation of children[edit]
In 2003, 1,400 minors were arrested for prostitution, 14% of whom were younger than 14 years old. A study conducted by the International Labor Union indicated that boys are at a higher risk of being trafficked into agricultural work, the drug trade, and petty crime. Girls were at a higher risk of being forced into the sex industry and domestic work. In 2004, the Department of Labor found 1,087 minors employed in situations that violated hazardous occupation standards. The same year, 5,480 children were employed violating child labor laws. Due to the secretive nature of trafficking, it is difficult to piece together an accurate picture of how widespread the problem is.[21]
In 2001, the University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work released a study on CSEC conducted in 17 cities across the United States. While they did not interview any of the adolescent subjects of the inquiry, they estimated through secondary response that as many as 300,000 American youth may be at risk of commercial sexual exploitation at any time.[26] The Center for Court Innovation in New York City had used Respondent Driven Sampling (RDS), Social Network Analysis, capture/recapture, and Markov based probability estimates in 2008 to generate a prevalence estimate for New York City alone and found that there were approximately 3800 children that were identified as commercial sexual exploitation victims. Researchers said this was an underestimate of the actual number as isolated sub-groups outside their sampling methodology exist and could not be estimated.[27] An article by the Village Voice that reviewed arrest records in 37 large US cities over 10 years found only 827 cases a year had been reported to police departments.[28]
Especially vulnerable are homeless and runaways. The National Runaway Switchboard said in 2009 that one-third of runaway youths in America will be lured into prostitution within 48 hours on the streets.[29] This view of adolescent prostitution in the United States as primarily driven by pimp-exploiters and other 'sex traffickers' was challenged by SNRG-NYC in their 2008 New York City study which interviewed over 300 under-age prostitutes and found that only 10% reported having pimps. A 2012 study done in Atlantic City, New Jersey, by the same group incorporated an extended qualitative ethnographic component that looked specifically at the relationship between pimps and adolescents engaged with street based sex markets.[30][31] This study found the percentage of adolescents who had pimps to be only 14% and that those relationships were typically far more complex, mutual, and companionate than has been reported by social service providers, not-for-profits, and much of the news media.[32]
The New York State Office of Children and Family Services estimated in 2007 that New York City is home to more than 2,000 sexually exploited children under 18. At least 85 percent of these youths statewide have had some contact with the child welfare system, mostly through abuse or neglect proceedings. In New York City, 75 percent have been in foster care.[33] Mishi Faruqee, who is in charge of juvenile justice issues for the Correctional Association of New York, questioned the reliability of the estimate. 'We believe that number is really an undercount.'[34] This is confirmed by SNRG-NYC's New York City population estimate of 2008 which was 3,946.
Super Bowls[edit]
Law authorities have led sting operations in connection with Super Bowl games. During the Super Bowl XLVIII, authorities arrested 45 pimps and rescued 25 child victims of human trafficking. During Super Bowl XLIX, authorities led a sting operation called National Day of Johns and arrested almost 600 people and rescued 68 victims.[35]
Labor trafficking[edit]
According to the National Human Rights Center in Berkeley, California, there are currently about 10,000 forced laborers in the U.S., around one-third of whom are domestic servants and some portion of whom are children. In reality, this number could be far higher due to the difficulty in getting exact numbers of victims, due to the secretive nature of human trafficking. The U.S. government only keeps a count of survivors, defined as victims of severe instances of human trafficking, who have been assisted by the government in acquiring immigration benefits.[14] Research at San Diego State University estimates that there are 2.4 million victims of human trafficking among illegal Mexican immigrants.[36] Research by the Urban Institute says that law enforcement agencies do not prioritize labor trafficking cases, were reluctant to help victims obtain authorization to legally remain in the United States, and felt there was not enough evidence to corroborate victim statements.[37]
In 2014, the National Human Trafficking Resource Center reported 990 cases of forced labor trafficking in the US, including 172 which also involved sex trafficking. The most common types of labor trafficking included domestic work, traveling sales crews, agriculture/farms, restaurant/food service, health & beauty services, begging, retail, landscaping, hospitality, construction, carnivals, elder care, forestry, manufacturing, and housekeeping.[38]
Domestic labor[edit]
Domestic servitude is the forced employment of someone as a maid or nanny, and victims are often migrant women who come from low-wage communities in their home countries.[39]Domestic workers perform duties such as cleaning, cooking and childcare in their employers home. Domestic workers are commonly US citizens, undocumented workers or foreign nationals most commonly holding one of the following visa types: A-3, G-5,NATO-7 or B-1[40] The most common victims of this type of trafficking are women. Similar means of control to Agricultural Work are common. Additionally, a lack of legislation regarding the duties and protection of these workers facilitates their exploitation. Employers commonly use the workers lack of knowledge of the language or legal system as a means of control and intimidation. This is also commonly paired with various forms of abuse and/or passport revocation. Many domestic workers are brought to the United States on a promise of a better life or an education.[41] Traffickers are usually married couples from the same country of origin as the trafficked person,[42] and are usually not involved in organized criminal networks,[43] making it more difficult to identify instances of this type of trafficking. Perpetrators of domestic servitude are often well-respected members of their communities and lead otherwise normal lives.[43] Areas with large middle-class and upper-middle-class populations are commonly the destinations of this type of trafficking.[39]
The Associated Press reports, based on interviews in California and Egypt, that trafficking of children for domestic labor in the U.S. includes an extension of an illegal but common practice in Africa. Families in remote villages send their daughters to work in cities for extra money and the opportunity to escape a dead-end life. Some girls work for free on the understanding that they at least will be better fed in the home of their employer. This custom has led to the spread of trafficking, as well-to-do Africans accustomed to employing children immigrate into the U.S.[44]
Legally employed domestic workers are distinct from illegally employed domestic servants. While legally employed domestic house workers are fairly compensated for their work in accordance with national wage laws, domestic servants are typically forced to work extremely long hours for little to no monetary compensation, and psychological and physical means are employed to limit their mobility and freedom.[39] In addition, deportation threats are often used to discourage internationally trafficked persons from seeking help.[39]
Traveling sales crew[edit]
Traveling sales crews have the highest rate of calls to human trafficking hotlines after domestic labor (counting from January 2008 to February 2015). The mobile nature makes it easier for traffickers to control their victims' sleeping arrangements and food and to alienate them from outside contact. Traffickers may withhold food or threaten to abandon their victims in unfamiliar locations without money if they do not comply. Unlike other professions, members of traveling sales crews are considered independent contractors even if they do not have any autonomy in their life outside of work. As independent contractors, they are not overseen by several laws meant to prevent abuse, such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Victims often incur debt from their traffickers, and enter into a form of debt slavery.[45]
Malinda's Traveling Sales Crew Protection Act[46] is a Wisconsin law that gives traveling sales crew members similar employment rights as part-time workers in Wisconsin are currently guaranteed by state law. It also requires all crews to register with the Department of Agriculture, Trade, and Consumer Protection before going door to door in state communities. By registering members of the crew, alerts for members with outstanding warrants in other states can be identified and criminals detained.[47] It is the only law in the United States that regulates traveling sales crews.[45] Wisconsin governor James E. Doyle says the intent of the law is to 'stop companies from putting workers in dangerous and unfair conditions'. The bill was passed in a form that applies only to sales workers who travel in groups of two or more.[48] It was authored by Jon Erpenbach.[47]Southwestern Advantagelobbied against the bill, arguing that their independent contractor business model nurtured the entrepreneurial spirit.[49][50] During the hearings, former Southwestern student dealers testified on both sides of the issue.[51]
Agriculture[edit]
In the agriculture sector, the most common victims of trafficking are U.S. citizens and legal permanent residents, undocumented immigrants, and foreign nationals with temporary H-2A visas.[52]
H-2A visa is a certification program, which is the employers contracting people from other countries, but first the employers must try to recruit U.S. workers, before looking abroad.[53] In attempts towards seeking employees, once they are hired they may encounter some difficulties such as:
- May not be able to join a union or face legal challenges
- Requirements that farmers may not meet because of the program[53]
H-2A visas are temporary visas that allow people from other countries to work in the United States, with some benefits contractors need to provide to them. Examples include, 'farmers are required to these workers with housing and pay for transportation to the job, pay them at least three-quarters of the season at a higher rate, than the average paid rate of that work'.[53] Yet, the circumstances of the law states for free housing, 'prevailing practice in the area and occupation of intended employment'.[53] Farmers who are working and have families are not guaranteed housing situations. Farm workers being controlled greatly,[clarification needed] their lives are vulnerable in fears that they may be deported back to their homeland.[53]
Due to the nature of agricultural work as being seasonal and transient, the ability of employers to exploit these workers is high. Such exploitation may take the form of threats of violence and playing on vulnerabilities (i.e. immigration status). In some cases, workers are held in a state of perpetual debt to the crew leaders who impose mandatory transportation, housing and communication fees upon the workers which are high in relation to pay received, therefore further indebting the worker. Crew leaders may also provide workers with H-2A visas and transportation to the place of work from a home country. Part of the H-2A visa, is that it does not provide an adequate choosing of their employment, how much would they be paid for their work, or even the hours, are not negotiable. Undocumented people who come without any visas, have a greater chance of choosing of where they wish to work and decide to leave the employment if they wish and have a better chance of not being exploited.[54]
In 2010, the company Global Horizons was indicted on charges of trafficking over 200 Thai workers. With the program, bonded labor, it[clarification needed] was guaranteed that the workers were going to receive a visa that would allow them to live and work in the United States. Upon arrival, the company made a false statement to lure the workers and having a higher recruitment.[clarification needed] The fees that were imposed to the farm workers were so high that the debt was impossible to pay with the employment they were given. Many were living in poor housing conditions (up to a dozen living per home), threats, and physical assaults.[55]
Human trafficking among Latin Americans[edit]
According to Polaris hotline statistics, people from Latin America makes up almost one third of the population of victims of human traffic in the United States.[56] Most victims are from Mexico, Haiti, Honduras, El Salvador, and the Dominican Republic.[56]Nearly 29 percent of victims enter the US through the Mexico-United States border by human smuggling while majority come with work visas.[57]
Vulnerabilities and recruitment[edit]
There are some circumstances or vulnerabilities that have led some Latin Americans to a higher susceptibility to victimization and human trafficking. The relationship between 'push' factors that result in poverty (i.e. unemployment, natural disasters, drug abuse, etc.) and 'pull' factors (i.e. risky job opportunities, deceitful romantic relationships, the American dream that is fueled by mass media, etc.) encourages Latin Americans to accept risky job proposition in the US. Once the victims fall for deceitful labor recruiters, traffickers exploit vulnerabilities to keep victims under their control such as language barrier and illiteracy, fear of deportation due to lack of documentation, isolation from family, friends, and the public, unfamiliarity with surroundings and with the laws, indebtedness, drug dependence, and physical and psychological abuse. Deportation can often leave trafficked victims at the mercy of their traffickers once again or it may cause harm to their families through either punishment by the traffickers or a loss of remittances that the traffickers had been sending to the family.[58] Furthermore, when natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes strike Latin American countries, traffickers often capitalize on impoverished families who can't afford to support their kids. In 2013, three years after a 7.0-magnitude earthquake devastated Haiti, the United States government estimated that between 150,000 and 500,000 children in Haiti were involved in domestic servitude.[59]
Coyotaje[edit]
With the increase[when?] in U.S. border security, undocumented Latino immigrants have increasingly turned to smugglers to lead them through Mexico and across the U.S.-Mexican border. The colloquial term coyotaje refers to human smuggling along the Mexico-United States border. The term used to imply that the relationship between the smuggler and the migrant ended once they arrived in the US.[60] However, it has become increasingly commonplace for coyotes to coerce migrants into exploitative labor arrangements upon reaching their destination in the U.S. (frequently a different one from that which they paid to be smuggled to).[60] These smuggling routes have become more dangerous and therefore costlier, making some smugglers sell undocumented migrants into situations of forced labor or prostitution to recover their costs.[60] Illegal immigrants transiting Mexico often fail to report abuses committed against them by criminals or officials in their home countries or along their journey because of fears of deportation. Unaccompanied minors are sometimes sold into prostitution by the trafficker, and their families are falsely led to believe that they died during transit.[60]
Labor trafficking[edit]
Agriculture[edit]
According to cases reported to Polaris-operated hotlines, survivors of this type of labor trafficking are disproportionately Latino male migrant workers, mostly from Mexico and Central America, on seasonal H-2A visas. Despite the H-2A program requirement that employers supply workers with suitable housing, traffickers have also been known to subject victims to squalid living conditions, often denying them even necessities such as beds and indoor toilets.[56] This type of labor trafficking occurs in places from orange orchards to corn fields, but some crops such as tobacco require much more intensive labor to harvest, making them more susceptible to forced labor or exploitation. By far the most common method of control in agriculture, as in many other types, is economic abuse, including wage theft, improper deductions, and payment at piece rates rather than hourly rates.[56]
Restaurants[edit]
Data from Polaris has indicated that foreign national men and women from Mexico and Central America tend to be equally victimized. Victims can be confined at the restaurant around the clock or be isolated in a nearby home provided by the traffickers.[56]
Domestic workers[edit]
Having a legal work visa is not necessarily a protection against abuse; the Urban Institute estimated 82% of cases of domestic worker trafficking it reviewed had come to the US on legal visas.[61] Labor trafficking victims in domestic work commonly work 12–18 hours a day (some as much as 24/7) for little to no pay. They may experience extreme isolation and confinement from the outside world, sexual harassment, high levels of monitoring, debt bondage, extreme wage theft, confiscation of critical documents such as passports, and restricted access to food and medical care.[56]
Construction[edit]
Most of labor trafficking survivors in construction are men from Mexico and the Northern Triangle (El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala), most of whom have H-2B visas or are undocumented. Workers can enter their exploitative situations through formal job offers and misrepresented visa contracts. In some cases, workers may be charged illegal and exorbitant recruitment fees, which may be a method of control to keep workers in abusive situations. Recruitment may also begin through an abusive migration journey or through word-of-mouth referrals.[56]
Sex trafficking[edit]
Most of the victims that suffer from sex trafficking come from Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean and only 11% come from the United States. Severe brutality and abuse are the tactics used to control the victims, over half whom are minors.[56] 96% of the potential victims are female from either Mexico or Central America and 63% of the victims are minors because the traffickers in the cantinas are eager to target young girls.[56]
Bars and cantinas[edit]
Woman and girls of ages 14–29 from the area demographics of Mexico and Central America are often victimized by bars and cantinas.[62] The Latina woman and girls who are targeted by traffickers lack economic means, English fluency and legal status which makes the process easier for traffickers to manipulate them.[56]
Escort services[edit]
Latin American women and girls that are smuggled into the United States are also often exposed to the world of commercial sex trade better known as 'escort services'. There are two ways in which the operation can proceed: one is described as 'outcall', where the traffickers deliver victims to the buyer's hotel room or their homes. The second option is 'incall' which is when the customers cycle in and out of a hotel room while the trafficker extends the victims' stay. Many of these interactions between the buyers, the traffickers and victims took place on the website backpage.com where Latinas had their own category. The website has been closed since January 2017.[56]
Latino brothels[edit]
Brothels catering exclusively to Latino males, referred to as 'Latino Residential Brothels', are a major vehicle for sex trafficking, with the victims being almost exclusively women and children from Latin America.[63][64][65] Trafficking of U.S. citizens within the U.S. occurs as well. They typically own informal underground businesses in urban, suburban, and rural areas.
Structural factors[edit]
Poverty[edit]
Poverty can lead to increased trafficking in many different ways. Poverty affects the notion of individual choice and often drives families to make decisions out of desperation and lack of education.[66] Poverty, in some countries, may influence parents to send their children to work in another urban country with a more stable economy, such as the U.S., without the knowledge that the child is then forced into slave labor or prostitution. Furthermore, once this kidnapping and trafficking of the child occurs, the victim often accepts their situation and limits efforts to escape their imprisonment. Oftentimes, they wind up alone in a country where they do not speak the language, making it difficult to seek aid.[67] In addition, victims often accept their positions because they feel that this is the only way that they may send some remittances to their family and their enslaved situations may in some cases still be better than their original impoverished and desperate state.[66]
Globalization[edit]
The rate of human trafficking has directly increased in correlation with globalization.[68] Globalization has increased cross-border trade and the demand for cheap labor; however, migration policies of the U.S. and other countries have not changed with the level of demand for cheap labor, thus forcing people illegally to immigrate.[66] Illegal immigration then creates ideal conditions for organized criminal operations to form trafficking circles.[66] With increased trade of foreign goods to rural areas, import competition in the rural markets has also forced people in poor areas to migrate to industrialized economies for better livelihoods. Their desperate positions often make them subject to exploitation and trafficking into different forms of forced labor to support that economy.[66] Lastly, the technological advances that go hand in hand with globalization have facilitated the ease with which organized crime circles may conduct trafficking operations.[66]
Prostitution[edit]
Some feminists, such as Carole Pateman, believe that exploitation is in both prostitution and sex trafficking.[69] They believe that even if the women agreed to be a sex worker in a foreign country that the worker was still trafficked because of the preceding conditions that lead her to believe that sex work was the only viable work option.[69] Other feminists such as Kamala Kempadoo, on the other hand, believe that prostitution is a form of labor just like any other migrant labor; however, due to the criminalization of prostitution, prostitutes are then subject to coercion and exploitation and subsequent trafficking.[58] In the USA, each year 80,000 women are arrested for prostitution. Current debates about modifications to Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 policy are based about these two arguments. In providing aid for victims of sex trafficking the government must take a stand on whether or not they believe the sex industry and sex trafficking are inherently linked.[66] These people involved in prostitution have an 80% higher chance of sexually transmitted infections and many never can afford to seek treatment. This results in serious infections, lifelong diseases, and sometimes even death.[70]
Fear of government corruption[edit]
Even though the U.S. offers protection for trafficking victims, few victims seek the government's aid due to fear of corruption, fear of deportation, or fear of reprisals with their family.[71] Victims of trafficking may be citizens of countries with corrupt governments that actually aid trafficking.[71] Where victims' home countries lack reliable police systems, trafficking victims are hesitant to reach out to the law for aid. Jessa Dillow Crisp was of many victims of human trafficking, who had encountered the police in her town to be corruptive and involved in the trafficking.[72]
Anti-trafficking laws and policies[edit]
Laws against trafficking exist at the federal and community levels. Over half of the states now criminalize human trafficking, though the penalties are not as tough as under the federal laws. Related federal and state efforts focus on regulating the tourism industry to prevent the facilitation of sex tourism and regulate international marriage brokers to ensure criminal background checks and information on how to get help are given to the potential brides.
Policy of the federal government[edit]
The federal government has taken a firm stance against human trafficking both within its borders and beyond. Domestically, human trafficking is a federal crime under Title 18 of the United States Code. Section 1584 makes it a crime to force a person to work against her or his will, or to sell a person into a condition of involuntary servitude.[73]
Section 1581 similarly makes it illegal to force a person to work through 'debt servitude'.[74] Human trafficking as it relates to involuntary servitude and slavery is prohibited by the 13th Amendment. Federal laws on human trafficking are enforced by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the United States Marshal Service, the Drug Enforcement Administration, the Immigration and Customs Enforcement, the United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division and Criminal Section, and other federal agencies.
Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act[edit]
The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 allowed for greater statutory maximum sentences for traffickers, provided resources for protection of and assistance for victims of trafficking, and created avenues for interagency cooperation. It also allows many trafficking victims to remain in the U.S. and apply for permanent residency under a T-1 Visa.[75] Previously, trafficked individuals who were often in the country illegally were treated as criminals. According to the section on Severe Forms of Trafficking in Persons, the definition extends to include any 'commercial sex act ... in which the person induced to perform such act has not attained 18 years of age'.[76] This means that any minor engaged in prostitution is a victim of human trafficking, regardless of citizenship or whether or not movement has taken place.[77]
The law defines trafficking as 'the prohibition against any individual who provides or obtains labor or services for peonage, slavery, involuntary servitude, or forced labor.' The law distinguishes trafficking, where victims are coerced into entering the U.S., from smuggling, where migrants enter the country without authorization.[78] The act also attempted to encourage efforts to prevent human trafficking internationally, by creating annual country reports on trafficking and tying financial non-humanitarian assistance to foreign countries to real efforts in addressing human trafficking. The benefits of the law, however, are dependent on the survivor's cooperation with prosecuting the perpetrators. This can be complicated if the victim fears retribution from their trafficker or has a fear of authority that remains from their country of origin.[14]
The original TVPA of 2000 has been reauthorized three times, the most recent being the William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008. These reauthorizations have clarified definitions of trafficking and forced labor in order both to aid in prosecution of traffickers and to aid the victims of trafficking. The reauthorization versions have also required the federal government to terminate all contracts with overseas contractors involved in human trafficking or forced labor. Extraterritoriality jurisdiction was also extended to cover all U.S. nationals and permanent residents who are living overseas.[79]
In 'October 2000, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA) (Public Law 106-386) was enacted. Prior to that, no comprehensive Federal law existed to protect victims of trafficking or to prosecute their traffickers'.[12] In 2003, the Bush Administration authorized more than $200 million to combat human trafficking through the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2003 (TVPRA). TVPRA renews the U.S. government's commitment to identify and assist victims exploited through labor and sex trafficking in the U.S. The U.S. has also set up programs to help those who have been victims. The government can help victims, once identified, by stabilizing their immigrant status. The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) enables victims who are non-U.S. citizens to receive federally funded benefits and services to the same extent as a refugee; as well, U.S. citizens who are victims are eligible for many benefits.[citation needed]
Human trafficking hotline[edit]
The federal government has set up a National Human Trafficking Resource Center Hotline (1-888-373-7888).[80] The hotline answers questions and responds to crises in up to 170 languages.[81] and provides materials in over 20 languages.[82] Since 2007, the hotline has received over 60,000 calls. Callers include victims of human trafficking seeking services, as well as individuals and organizations seeking information about human trafficking. Twenty-five states have mandated certain types of businesses to post a hotline.[83] Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Tennessee have their own hotline while the others use the national hotline.[84]
Safe Harbor laws[edit]
Safe Harbor laws protect victims of human trafficking from legal prosecution of crimes committed while under the influence of the trafficker and provide services such as counseling and housing and protect them from their exploiters.[85] Victims of trafficking are protected under federal law, but may still be charged under state law.
The federal Stop Exploitation Through Trafficking Act of 2013 is a law that encourages states to pass safe harbor laws. It elevated the status of the National Human Trafficking Hotline and opened up the Job Corps program to sex trafficking victims.[86]
Pressure from human rights groups[edit]
International NGOs such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have called on the U.S. to improve its measures aimed at reducing trafficking. They recommend that the U.S. more fully implement the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized CrimeProtocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children and for immigration officers to improve their awareness of trafficking and support the victims of trafficking.[87][88]
Health professionals[edit]
Doctors and health professionals are asked to look out for possible victims of human trafficking as most get to health care services at some time. Health care services have the chance to rescue them.[89]
National opposition organizations[edit]
- Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women (GAATW): influences shaping of U.S. policy against trafficking.[90] Distinguishes between prostitution and sex trafficking.[91][92]
- Coalition Against Trafficking in Women (CATW): influences shaping of U.S. policy against trafficking.[90][91] Does not acknowledge a difference between prostitution and sex trafficking.[92]
- The Trafficking Education Network focuses on educating and training people so they are better equipped to respond to human trafficking.[93]
- Worthwhile Wear is an international organization that provides an escape for those forced into prostitution or human trafficking. Overseas, survivors are provided vocational training and employment where they can learn to make items such as clothing, bags, and jewelry, and earn up to 5 times more than their counterparts. This provides the women with a way to stay out of forced prostitution. In the US, Worthwhile Wear operates a program called, The Well, offering long-term housing (up to 2 years), restorative services and employment to women, 18 years and older, who have been affected by human trafficking.[94][95]
As a moral panic[edit]
A number of authorities and critics of contemporary anti-prostitution activism have pointed out that the hysteria over human trafficking as conflated with voluntary adult prostitution has all the hallmarks of a moral panic, and indeed closely resembles the white slavery hysteria at the beginning of the 20th century. As is typical in such panics, broad claims are made with insufficient factual support, 'horror stories' of victims take the place of research, and legislators rush to enact dangerously broad and vague legislation which infringes on civil rights.[96]
Anthropologist Laura Agustín has written at great length about the way voluntary migration is purposefully conflated with involuntary trafficking, and how anti-trafficking laws tend to assume any foreign or underage prostitute is a 'trafficking victim' even if she denies it. In a similar vein, ethnographers studying U.S.-born adolescents involved in street-based sex markets have argued that the relationships that these adolescents have with the adults in their lives who help facilitate their market activity typically have a far greater mutuality and equality than is understood by policy-makers, social service providers, and not-for-profit advocates who embrace the human trafficking model.[96] Such critiques of this narrative have generally been dismissed by activists as evidence of Stockholm Syndrome, thus denying the prostitute agency and treating her as mentally ill.[97]
Ethnographers concerned with the validity of activists' impressions studied a federal anti-trafficking task force in a city that had been identified as a hub for domestic minor sex trafficking. In comparing local sex markets with the understandings of local social service providers, law enforcement officials, and anti-trafficking activists participating in the task force they found that many of the claims of widespread trafficking activity were either exaggerations or misinterpretations of anecdotal evidence; thus calling into question activists' ability to understand the context of what they were seeing.[98]
Media[edit]
- Mommie Dearest; 'Joan Crawford['s] ... Mommie Dearest daughter supposedly came from the Tennessee Children's Home Society'[99][a]
- 'Sixteen Tons' is a song by Tennessee Ernie Ford about debt bondage under the truck system among coal miners in Kentucky in the early 1900s. The practice was since made illegal and is considered a form of labor trafficking.[citation needed]
Documentaries[edit]
- The Men of Atalissa is a documentary film by POV.org and The New York Times[100] about 32 intellectually challenged people who were employed by Texas-based Henry's Turkey Service without proper compensation, and were abused physically and mentally, living in harsh conditions, at Atalissa, Iowa, for more than 30 years beginning in the 1970s. The men, paid a wage of $65 a month and sheltered in an old uphill schoolhouse, were used for meat processing. Their conditions were made public in 2009, leading to a $240 million jury verdict, subsequently reduced to $50,000 per person. The documentary is based on court records and internal documents of the company and features first-time interviews with seven of the victims.[101]
- I am Jane Doe is a documentary chronicling the legal battle that several American mothers are waging on behalf of their middle-school daughters, who were trafficked for commercial sex on Backpage.com, the classified advertising website formerly owned by the Village Voice. The film is narrated by Jessica Chastain, directed by filmmaker Mary Mazzio, and produced by Mazzio along with Alec Sokolow.[102]
Policy of state governments[edit]
Several state governments have taken action to address human trafficking within their borders, through either legislation or prevention activities. For example, Florida state law prohibits forced labor, sex trafficking, and domestic servitude and provides for mandatory law enforcement training and victim services. A 2006 Connecticut law prohibits coerced work and makes trafficking a violation of the Connecticut RICO Act. Washington State was the first to pass a law criminalizing human trafficking in 2003.[103]
Arizona[edit]
According to the U.S. State Department, Arizona is a main destination and transit point for labor and sex trafficking, both nationally and internationally. Some contributing factors include its proximity to Mexico, San Diego and Las Vegas, its warm weather, its network of freeways, and that it is a major conference destination, and home to many professional sporting events.[104] The Great Recession also hit Phoenix particularly hard, leading to a spike in homeless youth who are vulnerable to human traffickers.[105]Cindy McCain has raised awareness of human trafficking in Arizona and across the United States and served as co-chair of the Arizona Governor Jan Brewer's Task Force on Human Trafficking.[106][107]
Laws[edit]
- Unlawfully Obtaining Labor or Services; classification (AZ) – Arizona legislation making it illegal to obtain labor or services through the use of bodily harm, threatening or restraining victim, and/or withholding victim's personal records.[108]
- Sex Trafficking; classification (AZ) – Arizona legislation that defines what sex trafficking is. States that it is illegal to recruit, entice, harbor, transport, provide or obtain by any means another person with the intent of causing the other person to engage in prostitution by force, fraud or coercion. If a person is under the age of eighteen, it is illegal to entice, harbor, transport, provide, or obtain by any means that person with the intent of causing that person to engage in prostitution.[109]
- Trafficking of Persons for Forced Labor or Services; classifications; definitions (AZ) – Arizona legislation that defines labor trafficking as 'transport another person or to entice, recruit, harbor, provide or otherwise obtain another person for transport by deception, coercion or force,'. Also states that it is illegal to knowingly traffic another person or benefit from the trafficking of another person for labor or services.[110]
Organizations[edit]
- The Underage Sex-Trafficking Coalition was formed in 2011 by the Arizona Attorney General. It seeks to raise public awareness, educate the community and advocate to strengthen laws about human trafficking. It began the Arizona's Not Buying It Campaign,[111] in partnership with Shared Hope International, to fight child sex trafficking.[112]
- Arizona League to End Regional Trafficking (ALERT) is a coalition representing partnerships with law enforcement, faith-based communities, non-profit organizations, social service agencies, attorneys and concerned citizens. ALERT helps victims of trafficking by providing: food and shelter; medical care; mental health counseling; immigration assistance; legal assistance; language interpretation; case management; and other culturally appropriate services throughout the state of Arizona.[113]
- MOMA's House is an organization based in Laveen that helps female victims recover from sex trafficking by providing shelter, a supportive environment, and a program to help them develop life and career skills.[114]
- Training and Resources United to Stop Trafficking (TRUST) focuses on raising awareness about human trafficking through training and providing resources.
California[edit]
California is particularly vulnerable because of 'proximity to international borders, number of ports and airports, significant immigrant population, and large economy that includes industries that attract forced labor.'[115] It serves both as an entry point for slaves imported from outside the US as well as a destination for slaves. Slavery is found throughout California, but major hubs are centered around Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Francisco.[116]
In 2011, California enacted a new law called the 'Transparency in Supply Chains Act'.[117] The law requires certain retailers to disclose their efforts to eradicate slavery and human trafficking from their supply chains. The law went into effect January 1, 2012, and it applies to any company that is in the 'retail trade' that has annual worldwide gross receipts in excess of $100 million and annual California sales exceeding $500,000.[118]
Organizations[edit]
- The Coalition to Abolish Slavery and Trafficking: works to assist persons trafficked for the purpose of forced labor and slavery-like practices and to work toward ending all instances of such human rights violations.[119]
- The Thai Community Development Center's Slavery Eradication and Rights Initiative works to raise awareness of human trafficking and provide survivor support [120]
Florida[edit]
Florida Coalition Against Human Trafficking:[121] based in Clearwater, Florida. FCAHT's founder, Anna Rodriguez, had her first experience with a human trafficking case in 1999; U.S. vs. Tecum. Rodriguez served as a victim advocate with the Collier County Sheriff's Office and an outreach coordinator for the Immokalee Shelter for Abused Women in Collier County, Florida, for 10 years. Her first human trafficking case developed from a 'home visitation', in which she was following up on a domestic violence incident. She noticed the presence of a young female who turned out to be a victim of human trafficking. Rodriguez identified 'red flags' that made her suspicious and eventually she helped get the victim out. Today the Tecum case has become a major case study by agencies including USDOJ, FSU, Croft Institute for International and New York Times. The Tecum case was one of the cases used to urge US Congress in passing the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000.[citation needed]
The mission of FCAHT is to improve and provide outreach and services to victims of human trafficking throughout Florida by developing support programs, networking, coalition building, training, service delivery, and referrals to victims in need. FCAHT works closely with community service providers to provide victims with emergency food and shelter, medical and psychological treatment and other services as needed to help these individuals restore their lives and their freedoms.[citation needed]
FCAHT provides training to law enforcement agencies, medical facilities, faith based, civil and community organizations to bring awareness and recognition to the signs and symptoms of human trafficking.[citation needed]
FCAHT also works very closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and state and local law enforcement agencies in Florida as well providing guidance to law enforcement nationwide and Internationally. FCAHT also works hand in hand with government officials, victim service providers, faith-based groups and civic groups throughout Florida, the nation and overseas. FCAHT has assisted in the coordination of funded/unfunded human trafficking task forces throughout Florida and across the nation as well. FCAHT has also assisted in the creation of new human trafficking laws within Florida as well as overseas.
- Florida Abolitionist: based in Orlando[122]
Georgia[edit]
State policy:Georgia law OCGA 16-5-46 prohibits the trafficking of persons for labor or sexual servitude with a more severe penalty for trafficking minors.[123]
Other related laws:On April 2, 2015, a new law passed called the SB8 and SR7. Under this law convicted traffickers will register as sex offenders and pay into a state fund called New Safe Harbor to help victims of sex trafficking with physical, mental health, education, job training and legal help.[124]
HB 200 law went into effect on July 1, 2011. The law is harsher when it involves minors and can be up to a twenty-year prison sentence and a $100,000 fine. Another major step is that the age of consent, which is sixteen, or lack of knowledge of the victim's age is no longer a valid defense.[125]
Major issues:Atlanta is now a major transportation hub when it comes to trafficking young girls from Mexico and is one of the fourteen U.S. cities with the highest levels of sex trafficking of children.[126]
In 2007 the sex trade generated $290 million in Atlanta.[123]
Craigslist is a major medium for the advertisement for sex and the site is known to get three hits per day.[127]
Since Atlanta has 'the same ready access to commercial air and ground routes that draws businesses and travelers to Atlanta also entices criminals engaged in human trafficking'. There are numerous events and conventions in Atlanta that bring many people to the city which also exemplifies the issue.[126]
Organizations:Out Of Darkness is an organization that is against sex trafficking which is located in Atlanta Georgia; Out of Darkness falls under the section 501(c) (3). Their 'mission is to reach, rescue and restore all victims of commercial sexual exploitation, that the glory of God may be known.'[128]
BeLoved AtlantaAtlanta is an organization that focuses on the 'community of women who have survived trafficking, prostitution and addiction'. BeLoved Atlanta will provide a residential home to adult women who were personally affected by sexual exploitation, they are able to provide their services to residents for up to two years.[129]
End It 'is a coalition of leading organization in the world to fight for freedom'. There mission is to shine a light on all forms of slavery. End it 'Partners are doing the work, on the ground, every day, to bring AWARENESS, PREVENTION, RESCUE, and RESTORATION.'[130]
Not for sale is about protecting individuals from modern day slavery and human trafficking. Not for sale started out in San Francisco however is located in 15 other states. They provide safety, job-training, and life skills, along with many other outlets.[131]
Michigan[edit]
In 2006, Governor Jennifer Granholm signed House Bill 5747[132] (introduced by Rep. Phil Pavlov (R)[133]) which specifically outlawed human trafficking in Michigan. The relevant state statutes are sections 750.462a to 750.462i.[134] Effective April 1, 2011, an additional statute, 750.462j was enacted, which set grounds for further prosecution in human trafficking cases.[135]
Nevada[edit]
In 2013, Nevada passed Assembly Bill 67, which uses the federal definition of sex trafficking and increases penalties by one level. It makes victims eligible for state assistance and allows them to sue their traffickers. Sex traffickers will have to register as a sex offender, and their assets will be seized to pay for victim services.[136]
Legal brothels[edit]
Prostitution of adults is legal in 11 rural counties in Nevada. By creating false identification, outside pimps can use these brothels to traffic children.[137][138][139] Detective Greg Harvey, from Eugene, Oregon, said such cases were in reality very common; he said, 'It's happening right now, it's amazing how many girls are shipped from here to different brothels in northern and southern Nevada. Many are underage.' Another detective, Sgt. Pete Kerns, supported Harvey's claims: 'Never buy the line that nobody under 18 works in (Nevada brothels),' he said. 'It's happening.'[139]
In her 2007 report Prostitution and trafficking in Nevada: making the connections, Melissa Farley presents the results of numerous interviews with brothel owners and prostitutes; she says that most brothel prostitutes are controlled by outside pimps and that they suffer widespread abuse by brothel owners and customers.[140]Bob Herbert supports the claim, stating: 'Despite the fiction that they are 'independent contractors', most so-called legal prostitutes have pimps — the state-sanctioned pimps who run the brothels and, in many cases, a second pimp who controls all other aspects of their lives (and takes the bulk of their legal earnings).'[138]
Alexa Albert says that the trafficking is done in cooperation with brothel owners, so the prostitutes will be easier to control.[137] Assemblyman Bob L. Beers said that 'A brothel owner is somebody who, when it gets down to the very essence, is nothing more than a slave-owner.'[141] Former Nye County Commissioner Candice Trummell, director of the Nevada Coalition Against Sex Trafficking, said 'It is way past time for Nevada to be the last state in the United States of America to finally stand against all forms of slavery.'[142]
In 2009, an article in the Guardian stated that some Nevada counties and towns 'impose some extraordinary restrictions on commercial sex workers' in order to 'separate sex workers from the local community': some places forbid prostitutes to leave the brothels for extended periods of time, while other jurisdictions require the prostitutes to leave the county when they are not working; some places do not allow the children of the women who work in the brothels to live in the same area; some brothel workers are not permitted to leave the brothel after 5 pm; in some counties registered sex workers are not allowed to have cars at all.[143] Another former prostitute who worked in four Nevada brothels attacked the system, saying, 'Under this system, prostitutes give up too much autonomy, control and choice over their work and lives' and 'While the brothel owners love this profitable solution, it can be exploitative and is unnecessary'. She described how the women were subject to various exaggerated restrictions, including making it very difficult for them to refuse clients and having to deal with doctors who had a 'patronizing or sexist attitude' (the brothels discouraged and in many cases forbade prostitutes to see doctors of their own choosing).[144]
Las Vegas[edit]
Although illegal, 90% of prostitution in Nevada occurs in Las Vegas.[145] In 2009 Las Vegas was identified by the FBI as one of 14 cities in the U.S. with high rates of child prostitution.[146] Las Vegas police claimed that 'roughly 400 children are picked off the streets from prostitution each year.'[147] The U.S. Justice Department has also named Las Vegas among the 17 most likely destinations for human trafficking.[148]Shared Hope International says Las Vegas is a major hub for child sex trafficking, in part because of the hyper-sexualized entertainment industry, easy access to alcohol and drugs, and 24-hour gambling.[149]
Minnesota[edit]
- Breaking Free provides various services to prostitutes, such as help finding a place to live and a job outside the sex industry.[150] The motto of the organization is 'sisters helping sisters break free'.[151]
- Mission 21, an organization based in Rochester, provides services for child prostitutes and human trafficking victims who are younger than 16 years old, and refers those 16 and older to Breaking Free.[152]
New York[edit]
Laws[edit]
- The New York State Anti-trafficking law was created in 2007. It created the crimes of Labor Trafficking and Sex Trafficking, provides immunity for victims and gives benefits and services to the victims.[153]
- New York State Safe Harbour for Exploited Children Act was created in 2008. It gives exploited children protection from the Family Court and access to services.[154]
Organizations[edit]
- New York State Anti-Trafficking Coalition is an umbrella group of more than 140 anti-trafficking organizations, and work towards raising public awareness, pass laws, improve law enforcement, and providing services to victims of human trafficking.[155] Together with Sanctuary for Families it launched New York's New Abolitionists campaign to raise awareness of human trafficking.[156]
- Girls Educational and Mentoring Services (GEMS) is a non-profit organization that provides services to commercially sexually exploited and domestically trafficked girls and young women, typically underage youth exploited by pimps and traffickers. The organization was founded in 1998 by Rachel Lloyd and is based in Harlem, New York City.[157] The organization has helped several hundred young girls transition out of the sex industry and get back to their full potential.[157] They also participated in lobbying for passage of the Safe Harbor Act for Sexually Exploited Youth, which provides that girls under the age of 16, who are arrested in New York for prostitution will be treated as victims, rather than criminals.[158] The bill was signed into law in September 2008.[159] The work of GEMS is the subject of the 2007 documentary Very Young Girls.[160]
Ohio[edit]
The Ohio Human Trafficking Task Force was created by executive order on March 29, 2012. It coordinates efforts between 11 departments to identify and rescue victims, to coordinate investigation of human trafficking cases, and to provide the services and treatment for victims.[161] Since then, Ohio has spent $2 million on programs for trafficking victims.[162]Franklin CountyMunicipal Court Judge Paul Herbert established a program called Changing Actions to Change Habits (CATCH court), which is a two-year probation program for adult victims of human trafficking that allows them to have their prior convictions dismissed.[163]
Ohio is particularly vulnerable to human trafficking because it has both large urban centers and rural counties and a large transient and immigrant population, as well as five major highways with easy access to other states and Canada.[161] 24 out of 88 counties have no human-trafficking training or access to victim services.[164] 1,078 Ohio children are victims of human sex trafficking every year.[165]Toledo is the fourth largest recruitment site for human trafficking in the US.[161]
Laws[edit]
H.B. 262 (The Ohio Human Trafficking Act of 2012) raised the penalty for committing the crime of human trafficking to a first-degree felony with a mandatory minimum sentence of 10–15 years, created a diversion program for juvenile victims to receive protection and treatment, and allows for adult victims of human trafficking with prior convictions of prostitution or solicitation to have their records expunged.[161]
Organizations[edit]
- Central Ohio Rescue and Restore is an organization that provides 'a collaborative community response to human trafficking in central Ohio through education, services, advocacy, and prosecution.' [166]
- Summit County Collaborative Against Human Trafficking is an organization centered in Summit County that seeks to increase awareness of human trafficking.[167]
Pennsylvania[edit]
Worthwhile Wear is an international organization that provides a way out of forced prostitution or human trafficking both overseas and in the US. In Pennsylvania, Worthwhile Wear operates a program called The Well, offering long-term housing (up to two years), restorative services and employment to women, 18 years and older, who have been affected by human trafficking.
Texas[edit]
Major U.S. hubs[edit]
The main factors that contribute to high levels of trafficking through Atlanta and Houston are proximity, demographics, and a large migrant labor force.[168] The presence of two large airports provides ways in and out of the city in Houston and Atlanta hosts the world's busiest and largest airport by several measures.[169] The likelihood of a high level of trafficking in Atlanta and Houston is supported by the fact that the majority of calls to National Trafficking Hotline come from The Atlanta Center and Houston.[citation needed]
Houston[edit]
Houston's proximity to the Mexican border, I-10, a highway running across country through Houston, and the port of Houston make it a popular point of entry for international trafficking.[168] Houston's huge geographic size and large Hispanic population create optimal conditions for trafficking because of the ability to blend in with the community.[168] There are large Asian and Middle Eastern populations that allow traffickers and their victims to blend easily into local communities.[170] Also, Texas businesses employ migrant labors in many different sectors throughout the state; such as textiles, agriculture, restaurants, construction, and domestic work.[168] This vast diversity makes it difficult for law enforcement to concentrate on any one labor sector and be effective in ending human trafficking.[168]
Types of trafficking found in Houston[edit]
The United States, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 defines sex trafficking as the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for the purpose of a commercial sex act, in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person forced to perform such an act is under the age of 18 years.[171] Sex trafficking that occurs in Houston is not limited to taking place in strip clubs, spas, massage parlors, modeling studios, cantinas, and residential brothels in hotels, motels, apartments and houses.[171] Labor trafficking found in Houston may be but not limited to agricultural work, restaurants, nail salons, domestic servitude, peddling, begging, or traveling sales crew.[171]
Quantity of trafficking in Texas[edit]
Based on a study released by Dallas Women's Foundation, sex trafficking of young girls is not an isolated phenomenon, but a widespread criminal activity in Texas.[172] The research found that 740 girls under age 18 were documented being marketed for sex during a 30-day period in Texas, of whom 712 of these girls were being marketed through Internet classified web sites and 28 were being marketed through escort services.[172] More information concluded from the research is that there are more girls being trafficked for sex in Texas during one month than there are women killed in domestic violence with former or current husbands, intimate partners or boyfriends in Texas over an entire year.[172] There are more girls being trafficked for sex in Texas during one month than there are females of all ages who died from complication due to AIDS in one year in Texas.[172] And finally, there are more girls being trafficked for sex in Texas during one month than there are teen girls who died by suicide, homicide, and accidents in the state in one year.[172]
Laws and policies[edit]
There are several pieces of legislation in place in Texas working to combat human trafficking. Recent legislation passed in Texas mandates that all incoming local law enforcement receive training on human trafficking.[173] In Houston specifically, one of the primary elements of the Juvenile Justice System in Harris County is the Juvenile Probation Department (HCJPD). HCJPD is 'committed to the protection of the public, utilizing intervention strategies that are community-based, family-oriented and least restrictive while emphasizing responsibility and accountability of both parent and child'. Feeding into HCJPD is the juvenile court system that includes five juvenile courts (each with a different judge presiding), a juvenile mental health court, and a juvenile drug court.[169]
Organizations[edit]
- The Coalition Against Human Trafficking: works to increase community awareness of human trafficking and coordinate the identification, assistance, and protection of victims through community education, advocacy, provision of culturally and linguistically sensitive victim services, and efforts to ensure the investigation and prosecution of human traffickers.[174]
- Mosaic Family Services operates the Services for Victims of Trafficking Program that provides culturally and linguistically competent services to victims experiencing abuse, so that they may quickly recover from a criminal act.[174]
- The Texas Association Against Sexual Assault: educates rape centers and domestic violence shelters throughout Texas about human trafficking.[174]
- Free the Captives: is a Christian-based NGO that has objectives including educating the community, preventing, and intervening in the trafficking of at-risk teens, reducing the demand, and pursuing legal remedies to combat trafficking.[175]
- Houston Rescue and Restore: exists to prevent and confront modern-day slavery by educating the public, training professionals, and empowering the community to take action for the purpose of identifying, rescuing, and restoring trafficking victims to freedom.[176]
- CHILDREN AT RISK: works to end child trafficking and ensure that child victims are recognized as victims and not criminals.[177]
- Innocence Lost
Virginia[edit]
According to officials with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Immigration and Customs Enforcement and other law enforcement agencies, there is a growing problem with human trafficking in Virginia, particularly in connection with Latino gangs, including MS-13. Anti-human trafficking advocates argue that weak laws in Virginia are attracting traffickers from Washington D.C. and Maryland which have passed stricter laws.[178]
Laws[edit]
Before April 1, 2015, Virginia was the only state in the nation that did not have any standalone human trafficking laws. SB 1188[179] and HB 1964[180] were passed on April 1, 2015. They were the first bills in Virginia to define sex trafficking, establish penalties, criminalized child sex trafficking as a Class 3 felony without the need to prove force, intimidation or deception, and criminalized recruitment for commercial sex. It also provides provisions for protecting and identifying sex trafficking victims.[181] Robert Dillard was the first man charged under this law.[182]
Organizations[edit]
- Freedom 4/24 is an organization based in Lynchburg, Virginia. Its mission is to raise awareness of human trafficking of women and children around the world and to provide financial support to other anti-human trafficking organizations.[183] It sponsors Frocks 4 Freedom, an event selling discounted trendy fashion,[184] and Run 4 Their Lives, a 5K race,[185] to raise money for their anti-human trafficking work.
- The Gray Haven is an organization based in Richmond, Virginia, that focuses on helping victims of human trafficking. The operate a drop-in center for victims, have a crisis response team, offer case management, and has a court advocacy team. They work with local, state, and federal law enforcement to identify and provide service for victims.[186]
- Northern Virginia Human Trafficking Initiative (NOVA HTI) is an organization based in Ashburn, Virginia, that seeks to connect the community to fight human trafficking. It seeks to raise awareness, advocates for change in laws, and assist victims of human trafficking.[187]
Wisconsin[edit]
The State of Wisconsin has worked to address human trafficking by establishing a comprehensive task force co-chaired by Attorney General Brad Schimel and Secretary of Children and Families Eloise Anderson. An implementation committee was chaired by Jodi Emerson of the Fierce Freedom Organization.[188] In 2017, the Wisconsin Department of Justice launched a Human Trafficking Bureau .There are five organizations in Wisconsin that are affiliated with human trafficking cosortium efforts. These organizations include 'Comprehensive Approaches to Youth who have been Sexually Exploited' (Milwaukee, Wisconsin), 'Dana County Coordinated Community Response to the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children,' 'Fierce Freedom' (Eau Claire), 'La Crosse Task Force to Eradicate Modern Slavery,' and the Outagamie Human Trafficking Steering Committee.
See also[edit]
- Child-selling, regarding sales for adoption
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
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- ^'Findings- Global Slavery Index 2016'. Global Slavery Index. Retrieved May 21, 2017.
- ^'Trafficking in Persons Report 2017: Tier Placements'. www.state.gov. Archived from the original on June 28, 2017. Retrieved December 1, 2017.
- ^Trump signs ‘FOSTA’ bill targeting online sex trafficking, enables states and victims to pursue websitesThe Washington Post, April 11, 2018
- ^CdeBaca, Luis (July 11, 2013). 'The State Department 2013 Trafficking in Persons Report'. state.gov. United States Department of State. Retrieved July 27, 2014.
- ^ ab'U.S. Department of State 2011 Trafficking in Persons Report'(PDF). Retrieved March 18, 2012.
- ^'Trafficking Victims Protection Act 2000'. Retrieved March 18, 2012.
- ^'United States Government Accountability Office: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Antitrafficking Efforts Abroad'(PDF). Retrieved March 18, 2012.
- ^'Attorney General's Annual Report to Congress on U.S. Government Activities to Combat Trafficking in Persons Fiscal Year 2005'(PDF). usdoj.gov. Department of Justice. p. 3. Archived from the original(PDF) on May 30, 2009.
This figure was an early attempt to quantify a hidden problem. Further research is ongoing to determine a more accurate figure based on more advanced methodologies and more complete understanding of the nature of trafficking.
- ^'U.S. Human Trafficking Incidents, 2008-2010'. Journalist's Resource.org. May 20, 2011.
- ^ ab'Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report 2011'(PDF). Retrieved March 18, 2012.
- ^ abc'Attorney General's Annual Report to Congress and Assessment of U.S. Government Activities to Combat Trafficking in Persons'(PDF). Office of the Attorney General. 2010. Retrieved March 18, 2012.
- ^'Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report 2011'(PDF). Page 327 (p. 27 per PDF viewer). Retrieved March 18, 2012.
- ^ abcdHIDDEN SLAVES: Forced Labor in the United States(PDF), Human Rights Center, University of California, Berkeley, September 2004, ISBN978-0-9760677-0-2, archived from the original(PDF) on August 30, 2007
- ^NHTRC stats page
- ^Markon, Jerry. 'Human Trafficking Evokes Outrage, Little Evidence'. The Washington Post.
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- ^Duren Banks and Tracey Kyckelhahn. Characteristics of Suspected Human Trafficking Incidents, 2008–2010. Washington, DC: BJS, 2011
- ^U.S. Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report, 2010
- ^Ronald Weitzer, 'Sex Trafficking and the Sex Industry: The Need for Evidence-Based Theory and Legislation', Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 101, 4 (Fall 2011): pages 1337-1370
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- ^Martin, Nick (January 11, 2010). 'Mexican woman tells of ordeal with cross-border child traffickers'. The Guardian. United Kingdom. Retrieved September 9, 2018.
The US state department estimates that more than 20,000 young women and children are trafficked across the border from Mexico each year. But conviction rates remain low.
- ^'The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in the U. S., Canada and Mexico'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on October 2, 2008. Retrieved March 22, 2014.
- ^Curtis,R., Terry, K., Dank, M., Dombrowski, K., Khan, B., Muslim, A., Labriola, M. and Rempel, M. The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in New York City: Volume One: The CSEC Population in New York City: Size, Characteristics, and Needs. National Institute of Justice, United States Department of Justice. September 2008.
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- ^Washington DC: A Sexual Playground for Pimps and Johns: Exposing child prostitution rings in DC, by Aisha Ali, Examiner.com Mar. 17, 2009; retrieved 12/27/2014
- ^Marcus, A. Riggs, R. et al, 'Is Child to Adult as Victim is to Criminal? Social Policy and Street Based Sex Work in the USA' in Sexuality Research and Social Policy [1]
- ^'Working Papers'. Snrg-nyc.org. July 12, 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2014.
- ^Marcus, Anthony, et al. 'Conflict and Agency among Sex Workers and Pimps: A Closer Look at Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking'. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science May 2014 vol. 653 no. 1 225-246. doi:10.1177/0002716214521993.
- ^Feldman, Cassi (April 24, 2007). 'Report Finds 2,000 of State's Children Are Sexually Exploited, Many in New York City'. New York Times. Retrieved April 30, 2010.
- ^Clyde Haberman (June 12, 2007). 'The Sexually Exploited Ask for Change: Help, Not Jail'. New York Times.
- ^Queally, James. 'National sex trafficking Sting Nets Nearly 600 Arrests Before Super Bowl'. Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 22, 2015.
- ^Looking for a Hidden Population: Trafficking of Migrant Laborers in San Diego County
- ^'Understanding the Organization, Operation, and Victimization Process of Labor Trafficking in the United States'. June 4, 2016.
- ^'National Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC) Annual Report'(PDF). National Human Trafficking Resource Center. December 31, 2014. Retrieved October 8, 2015.
- ^ abcdSrikantiah, Jayashri. 'Perfect Victims and Real Survivors: The Iconic Victim in Domestic Human Trafficking Law.' Boston University Law Review 87, no. 157 (2007): 157-211.
- ^'Domestic Work'. Polaris Project. Archived from the original on July 9, 2014. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
- ^Women's Rights. (n.d.). Retrieved April 23, 2014, from https://www.aclu.org/womens-rights/trafficking-and-exploitation-migrant-domestic-workers-diplomats-and-staff-international[permanent dead link]
- ^Armendariz, Noel-Busch, Maura Nsonwu, and Lauri Heffro. 'Understanding Human Trafficking: Development of Typologies of Traffickers PHASE II.' First Annual Interdisciplinary Conference on Human Trafficking, 2009, 1-12.
- ^ abSchaffner, Jessica. 'Optimal Deterrence: A Law and Economics Assessment of Sex and Labor Trafficking Law in the United States.' Houston Law Review 51, no. 5 (2014): 1519-548.
- ^Callimachi, Rukmini. Child maid trafficking spreads from Africa to US, Associated Press, December 28, 2008. Archived January 12, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ ab'Knocking at Your Door: Labor Trafficking on Traveling Sales Crews'(PDF). polarisproject.org.
- ^Malinda's Traveling Sales Crew Protection Act Pounded By Out-Of-State CompanyArchived March 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ abofficial WI Senate website[permanent dead link]
- ^'Wisconsin Tightens Rules on Sales Crews'. The New York Times. March 27, 2009.
- ^ALLAN TURNER, Copyright 2007 Houston Chronicle (July 1, 2007). 'Student tries to stop death of door-to-door sales'. Houston Chronicle.
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- ^'Labor Trafficking in Agriculture'. Polaris Project. Archived from the original on July 8, 2014. Retrieved April 24, 2014.
- ^ abcdeMartin, P (1999). 'Temporary Worker Visa Policy: Issues and Options'. Temporary Worker Visa Policy: Issues and Options. 22: 45–54. JSTOR23141341.
- ^Danger, C (2000). 'The H-2A Non-Immigrant Visa Program: Weakening Its Provisions Would Be a Step Backward for America's Farmworkers'. The H-2A Non-Immigrant Visa Program: Weakening its Provisions Would be a Step Backward for America's Farmworkers. 31 (3): 419–438. JSTOR40176480.
- ^'EEOC Files Its Largest Farm Worker Human Trafficking Suit Against Global Horizons, Farms'. www.eeoc.gov. Retrieved March 26, 2019.
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External links[edit]
- Human Trafficking Ring Dismantled (FBI)